M 


Agriculture— Litraff 


Dept, 


HIGHLAND    SHEEP  AT    HOME      Photo  by  Reid 


THE  PRESENTATION  of  this  photo-engraving  as  a  frontis- 
piece is  meant  to  be  a  tribute  to  the  talent  of  Mr.  Chas. 
Reid,  of  Wishaw,  Scotland,  whose  work  in  this  direction  has 
shown  the  degree  to  which  animal  photography  may  be  made  both 
artistic  and  instructive.  The  sustained  merit  of  the  work  which 
he  had  done  has  pointed  the  way  to  gratifying  results,  and  the 
outcome  has  just  recently  made  it  possible  to  illustrate  a  book  of 
'his  kind  with  all  the  types  and  qualities  shown  as  they  are, 
through  the  agency  of  photographs  made  by  him  and  such  artists 
as  Schreiber  of  Philadelphia,  Hills  of  Ohio,  and  Brown  of  Scot- 
land. In  addition  to  the  clearness  of  detail  in  this  reproduction 
of  some  Highland  sheep,  note  the  beauty  of  the  mountain  stream 
with  the  old  water  wheel  at  the  side  of  it,  the  naturalness  of  the 
sheep,  the  watchful  pose  of  the  dog,  guardlike  in  position,  with 
the  shepherds  resting  at  the  foot  of  the  trees  and  all  in  the  fore- 
ground of  the  rolling  hills  suggested  beyond. 


JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK 


By  JOHN  A.  CRAIG 


FORMERLY 

Editor  Canadian  Live  Stock  Journal 

Professor  Animal  Husbandry,  University  of  Wisconsin 

Professor  Animal  Husbandry  and  Vice  Director 

Iowa  Agricultural  College 
Dean  and  Director  Texas  Agricultural  and 

Mechanical  College 
Director  Oklahoma  Agricultural  Experiment  Station 


NINETEENTH  EDITION 


PUBLISHEP  BY  THE  AUTHOR 
1913 


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•^COPYRIGHTED  1901 

0 

JOHN  A.  CRAIG 


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Beauty  is  bought  by 
judgment  of  the  eye. 

— Shakespeare. 


J  N  JUDGING  LIVE  STOCK  there  are  two  faculties  which 
seem  to  require  .special  development — observation  and 
judgment. 

The  eye  must  see  quickly  and  accurately,  so  that  there 
may  be  no  mistake  in  the  observations  which  are  to  form 
the  basis  for  a  conclusion.  While  this  is  to  a  considerable 
extent  dependent  on  being  informed  on  what  to  look  for, 
yet  no  amount  of  information  will 
supply  keen  powers  of  observation, 
which  in  addition,  must  be  kept  in 
practice  by  continuous  use.  The  stu- 
dent should  never  be  dilatory  in  this,  for  once  allow  it  to 
be  said  that  he  sees  a  thing  which  he  does  not,  the  founda- 
tion for  candid  criticism  is  being  built  on  sand.  It  is  better 
to  be  "simpler  than  the  infancy' of  truth"  and  completely 
candid  with  one's  observations  than  to  be  in  the  least 
deceptive  or  dilatory  in  recording  them. 

Not  only  should  one  be  quick  to  see  things  as  they  really 
are  but  there  should  be  as  much  dispatch  in  detecting 
deviations  from  the  correct  standard. 
There  is  much  difficulty  in  this  for 
a  standard  only  forms  itself  clearly 
in  one's  mind  after  the  results  of 
experience,  observation  and  study 
have  merged  together  into  a  clearly 
defined  ideal.  To  formulate  an  ideal  is  absolutely  essential 
and  in  doing  this  it  is  imperative  to  familiarize  one's  self 
with  the  good  qualities  of  animal  life,  correct  conformation 
and  the  highest  types,  so  that  the 
least  variation  from  these  at  once  at- 
tracts the  attention.  When  a  dis- 


What,  then,  makes  a  dog 
beautiful?  The  possession 
ofrthe  excellence  of  a  dog. 
And  what  makes  a  horse 
beautiful?  The  possession 
of  the  excellence  of  a  horse. 
What,  then,  makes  a  man 
beautiful?  Is  it  not  the  po- 
session  of  the  excellence  of 
a  mai\?—Et>ictetus. 


No  pessimist  ever  made 
much  in  the  study  of  life 
histories  of  animals.  The 
student  of  such  had  better 
be  an  optimist  out  and  out. 
— Samuel  Lockmood. 


tinct  ideal,  based  on  the  best  types 
and  their  highest  qualities  has  been  formed  in  the  mind, 
and  this  is  supported  by  a  discriminating  eye,  it  is  but 
another  step  to  render  a  correct  judgment. 


267524 


In  judging  the  market  classes  of  stock  the  demands  of 

the  market  should  have  a  strong  influence  in  the  establish- 

ment  of  standards  and  in  the  judg- 

But  do  thou,  I  say,  simply      .  „    .    , 

and  fully,  choose  the  better    ing  oi  breeding  classes  the  oiiicial 

and   hold    to    it.    But    that 

which  is  useful  is  the  better.      SCaleS     01     points,     when     SUCh     6XlSt, 

—Antoninus.  •,-,-,  -,.     -,  -,   •     m 

should  be  relied  upon  chieily  as  a 


guide,  and  when  these  are  not  officially  published  an  effort 
should  be  made  to  become  informed  regarding  the  under- 
standing  that  exists  among  the  breeders.  While  these  stand- 
ards are  so  wide  in  scope  as  to  include  many  minor  points, 
yet  it  will  be  noticeable  that  the  essential  features  are  given 
the  greatest  prominence  and  they  are  usually  based  on  the 
utility  of  the  animal  for  its  purpose. 
This  does  not  mean  that  the  minor 
features  should  be  slighted,  for  the 


No  detail  is  too  small  to 
be  studied  for  truth. 


degree  of  excellence  in  domestic  animals  is  now  so  high  and 
the  competition  so  keen  that  it  is  most  frequently  on  some 
of  these  minor  details  that  their  rank  in  the  show  ring  is 
determined. 

In  show  ring  judging,  after  the  inspection  is  completed, 
a  draft  or  "short  leet"  is  made  of  the  likely  winners  of 
place  from  the  rest  of  the  competitors.  Up  to  this  time 
the  judging  has  been  the  detection  of  faults  and  deviations 
from  the  standard  required,  but  now  the  work  is  more  of 
the  nature  of  comparative  judging,  in  which  the  points  of 
the  animals  considered  worthy  of 
prizes  are  compared  to  determine 

Antoninus. 

their  rank.    It  greatly  aids  dispatch 


Reverence     the    faculty 
which  produces  opinion. — 


and  tends  to  more  exactness  to  make  such  a  draft  when 
there  are  five  or  more  animals  in  the  class.  It  also  materi- 
ally assists  the  examiner  in  keeping  in  mind  the  qualities 
which  he  must  compare.  Carefulness  at  this  point  will  do 
much  towards  the  formation  of  a  decision,  which  may  be 
afterwards  maintained  with  justice. 


CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I— JUDGING  HORSES. 


I.       THE  ANATOMY  A  BASIS  OF   STUDY 


The  Bones  as  Levers;  Actions  of  the  Muscles;  Function 
of  the  Nervous  System;  Temperaments. 


II.      JUDGING  LIGHT   HORSES 


General  Examination. — Form;  Propelling  Power  Re- 
sides in  Hindquarters;  Three  Classes  of  Light  Horses; 
The  Coach  or  Carriage  Horse;  Analysis  of  Style;  The 
Trotter  or  Roadster;  The  Pacer  as  a  Roadster;  The 
Saddle  Horse;  Quality;  Durability  Associated  with 
Quality;  Action,  The  Walk;  Observing  Straightness 
of  the  walk;  Manner  of  Noting  Levelness;  The  High 
Stepper  in  Action;  The  Carriage  Horse;  Straight  and 
Regular  Action;  The  Driver's  Sensation  of  Action; 
The  Trotter;  The  Pacing  Gait. 

Structural  Examination, — Head;  Nostrils;  Eyes;  Ears; 
Jaw  Bones;  Neck;  Shoulders;  Fore  Legs;  Arms; 
Elbows;  Fore  Arms;  Knees;  Cannons;  Pasterns; 
Feet;  Ribs;  Back;  Loin;  Croup;  Thighs;  Quarters; 
Hind  Legs;  Hocks;  Hind  Cannons;  Hind  Pasterns; 
Hind  Feet;  Scale  of  Points  for  Light  Horses. 

III.   JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 35 

Consideration  of  Condition. 

General  Examination. — Form;  Advantage  of  Weight; 
Market  Value  of  Weight;  Quality  with  Substance  Nec- 
essary for  Durability;  Action;  Trotting  Action. 
Structural  Examination.—  Head;  Neck;  Shoulder; 
Chest;  Arm;  Fore  Leg;  Knees;  Fetlocks;  Pasterns; 
Feet;  Body;  Loin;  Croup;  Hock;  Scale  of  Points  for 
Heavy  Horses. 

IV.   JUDGING  HORSES  IX  THE  BREEDING  CLASSES 44 

Sex  Characteristics;  Differences  in  Disposition;  Differ- 
ences in  Form;  Variation  in  Features;  Relation  of  Sex 
Characteristics  to  Sterility;  Relation  of  Sex  Character- 
istics to  Prepotency;  The  Stallion  Classes;  Importance 
of  Correct  Conformation;  Hereditary  Diseases;  The 
Mare  Classes;  Colts  and  Fillies. 

V.       ESTIMATING  THE  AGE  OF  HORSES  BY  THEIR  TEETH 50 

Appearance  of  Incisors;  Order  of  Appearance  of  In- 
cisors; Disappearance  of  the  Tables. 


CONTEXTS CONTINUED. 

VI.       EXAMINATION    FOR    UNSOUNDNESS 52 

A  Blemish  Different  from  Unsoundness;  Decayed  and 
Worn  Teeth;  Discharges  from  the  Nostrils;  Defective 
Hearing;  Sweenied  Shoulders;  Capped  Elbows;  Splints; 
Ringbones;  Sidebones;  Quarter  Cracks  and  Sand 
Cracks;  Corns;  Thrush  and  Scratches;  Locating  Lame- 
ness; Thoroughpin;  Curb;  Bone  Spavin;  Bog  Spavin; 
Unsound  in  Wind;  Detection  of  Stable  Vices. 

VII.      OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    FOR   HORSES 58 

Standard  for  Trotting  and  Pacing  Horses;  Shetland 
Pony  Scale  of  Points. 

CHAPTER  II— JUDGING  CATTLE. 
Method  of  Examination 63 

I.       JUDGING    BEEF    CATTLE 63 

Method  of  Handling;  Store  Steer;  Form  of  the  Feeder; 
Quality;  Inferences  from  Good  Handling;  Features  of 
the  Head;  Neck;  Chest;  Ribs;  Hips;  Judging  Fat 
Steers;  Handling;  Condition;  Relation  of  Parts;  Value 
of  Cuts;  Scale  of  Points  for  Beef  Steer. 

II.       JUDGING   BEEF   STOCK   FOR   BREEDING   PURPOSES 73 

Judging  Beef  Bulls;  Judging  Beef  Cows;  Judging 
Young  Beef  Stock. 

III.   JUDGING  DAIRY  CATTLE 76 

Dairy  Cow's  Function;  Making  of  Milk;  Function  of 
the  Blood;  Function  of  the  Udder;  Nervous  System; 
The  Dairy  Form;  Skin;  Hair;  Bone;  Head;  Neck; 
Hind  Quarters;  Hips;  Thigh;  Escutcheon;  Udder; 
Teats;  Milk  Veins;  Scale  of  Points  for  Dairy  Cow. 

IV.       JUDGING    DAIRY    BULLS 88 

Purity  of  Breeding;  Uniformity  of  Breeding;  Pedigree 
Based  on  Performance;  Qualities  Associated  with 
Individuality;  Judging  Calves. 

V.       OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE    FOR    CATTLE 90 

Aberdeen  Angus;  Devon;  Red  Polled;  Holstein- 
Friesian;  Jersey;  Guernsey;  Dutch  Belted;  Ayrshire. 

CHAPTER  III— JUDGING  SHEEP. 

Method  of  Examining  Sheep;  Deception  Due  to  Trim- 
ming; Estimating  Age  by  the  Teeth 107 

I.       JUDGING   SHEEP   FOR    MUTTON  AND   WOOL 109 

Feeding  Type  that  Gives  the  Best  Gains;  Feeding  Type 
Bringing  Most  at  Maturity;  Type  Desired  by  the  Butch- 
er; Quality;  The  Importance  of  Condition;  Judging 
Condition;  Importance  of  Dressed  Weight;  Considera- 
tion of  the  Consumer;  Qualities  of  the  Fleece;  Examin- 
ing the  Fleece;  Quantity  of  Fleece;  Density;  Length 


CONTEXTS CONTINUED. 

of  Staple;  Classification  of  Wool;  Quality  of  Fleece; 
Softness;  Commercial  Grades;  Crimp;  Soundness; 
Condition;  Purity;  Domestic  Wool;  Territory  Wool; 
Blanket  Wool;  Lustre;  Brightness;  Yolk;  Scale  of 
Points  for  Fine  Wooled  Sheep;  Scale  of  Points  for  Fat 
Sheep. 

II.       JUDGING   SHEEP  FOB  BREEDING  PURPOSES 127 

Formation  of  Types;  Value  of  Breed  Type;  The  Ram; 
The  Ewe;  Judging  Lambs  and  Flocks. 

JIJ,      OFFICIAL  STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOB  SHEEP 131 

Southdown;  Shropshire;  Hampshire;  Suffolk;  Oxford; 
Cotswold;  Wensleydale;  Dorset  Horn;  Cheviot;  De- 
laine, Spanish  Merino;  Black  Top  Spanish  Merino ; 
Tunis, 

CHAPTER   IV— JUDGING   SWINE. 

J.      JUDGING  FAT  HOGS , 145 

Form;  Quality;  Head;  Eyes;  Ears;  Jowl;  Neck; 
Shoulder;  Front  Legs;  Chest;  Sides;  Back;  Loin; 
Hips;  Rump;  Hams;  Hind  Legs;  Scale  of  Points  for 
Fat  Hogs, 

H,      JUDGING   BACON    HOGS ,  ,  ,  ,    15$S 

Condition;  Form;  Weight;  Shoulder;  Side;  Scale  of 
Points  for  Bacon  Hogs. 

III.  JUDGING   SWINE    FOB   BBEEDING   PURPOSES 156 

The  Boar;  The  Sow. 

IV.  OFFICIAL  STANDABD  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOB  SWINE 158 

Berkshire;  Poland  China;  Essex;  Chester  White; 
Duroc  Jersey;  Victoria;  Cheshire;  Large  White  York- 
shire; Middle  White  Yorkshire;  Small  White  Yorkshire; 
Suffolks;  Tamworth;  Thin-Rind. 


CHAPTER  I. 
JUDGING  HORSES. 

To  furnish  reasons  for  many  of  the  points  that  will  be 
submitted  in  discussing  the  types  of  horses,  it  becomes  nec- 
essary to  consider  the  horse  as  a  mechanism  in  which  the 
bones  are  levers,  the  muscles  the  source  of  power  aud  the 
nervous  system  the  stimulator  of  the  muscles. 

I.     THE  ANATOMY  A  BASIS  OF  STUDY. 

1.  The  Bones  as  Levers.  The  three  classes  of  levers 
are  all  represented  in  the  anatomy  of  the  horse.  The  first 
class  may  be  fittingly  illustrated  by  a  pair  of  scissors ;  the 
power  is  applied  at  the  holes  for  the  fingers,  the  fulcrum  is 
in  the  center  where  the  blades  are  united  and  the  applica- 
tion of  the  power  is  at  the  points.  This  is  the  strongest, 
form  of  leverage  and  it  is  employed  in  the  skeleton  of  the 
horse  by  the  parts  involved  in  the  extension  of  the  limbs. 

The  lever  of  the  second  class  may  be  said  to  be  clearly 
represented  by  a  wheelbarrow.  The  power  is  applied  at 
the  handle,  the  weight  is  in  the  center  and  the  application 
of  the  power  is  at  the  wheel.  This  leverage  in  the  horse 
enables  it  to  sleep  standing  or  to  stand  without  feeling 
much  strain.  It  is  in  action  in  such  parts  as  that  in  the 
region  of  the  humerus. 

The  leverage  of  the  third  class  is  represented  by  a  pair 
of  sheep  shears.  The  power  is  applied  at  the  center,  the 
fulcrum  is  at  one  end  and  the  application  of  the  power  is 
at  the  other.  This  leverage  is  not  common  but  it  is  shown 
in  the  action  of  the  lower  jaw  of  the  horse.  The  masseter 


U  JUDGING    HOUSES 

muscles  of  the  jaw  apply  their  power  to  the  center  of  the 
jaw  bone,  the  f  alcrum  is  at  the  point  where  the  under  jaw 
joins  the  head,  while  the  application  of  the  power  is  at  the 
teeth. 

2.  Action  of  the  Muscles.     In  considering  the  leverage, 
the  attachment  of  the  muscles  arid  their  nature  are  impor- 
tant.   As  the  muscles  consist  of  bundles  of  fibres,  it  is  easy 
to  understand  that  when  these  fibres  are  long,  they  possess 
more  elasticity  than  when  they  are  short.  The  long  muscle 
with  long  leverage,  added  to  by  length  of  the  bones  is  more 
favorable  for  quick  action  or  speed,  while  the  heavier  mus- 
cle is  more  favorable  for  draft  or  power.    The  attachment 
of  the  muscles  to  the  skeleton  is  also  an  important  feature. 
When  the  muscles  by  means  of  the  tendons  are  attached  to 
prominences  thus  enabling  them  to  work  some  distance 
from  the  bones  that  furnish  the  leverage,  it  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  action  of  the  muscles  would  be  more  effective. 
Hence,  in  most  joints  there  are  prominences  to  give  the 
muscles  the  most  favorable  attachment. 

In  this  connection  it  will  be  interesting  to  study  the  pro- 
portions of  the  bones  of  the  skeleton  to  find  reasons  for  the 
advantages  which  are  supposed  to  originate  with  different 
proportions.  In  general  we  look  for  short  bones  in  those 
parts  where  the  function  is  simply  the  transmission  of 
power ;  while  we  desire  greater  length  in  those  parts  where 
the  muscles,  the  source  of  power  or  speed,  are  to  be  found. 
In  the  front  leg  for  instance  it  is  desirable  to  have  the 
distance  long  from  the  elbow  to  the  knee,  with  the  propor- 
tions showing  a  much  greater  distance  than  from  the 
knee  to  the  fetlock  joint  for  the  reason  that  the  distance 
over  which  the  power  travels  should  be  as  short  as  pos- 
sible that  it  may  be  economized  and  but  little  of  it  lost 
in  transmission. 

3.  Function  of  the  Nervous  System.     In  studying  the 
horse  as  a  mechanism,  more  than  bone  and  muscle  should 
be  included.     The  stimulation  for  action  comes  from  the 
nerve  power  or  force.     The  nerve  power  is  represented 


Ancient  and  modern  schools  in  stock  judging.  In  early  times  what 
was  known  in  regard  to  the  judging  of  stock  had  to  be  garnered  under 
the  environment  and  with  the  material  shown  in  the  upper  illustration. 
Modern  facilities  and  methods  are  shown  in  the  lower  illustration,  which 
is.  a  photograph  of  the  stock  judging  pavilion  at  the  Iowa  State 
College  of  Agriculture  and  Mechanic  Arts,  with  the  first  class  to  come 
together  for  special  instruction  in  stock  judging.  Three  hundred  were 
in  attendance  at  this  school,  January,  1901. 


111!, . 


•2     «-'   a    ...  •  *£££*  •  s^  -H  -s"       * 


"•-.. 


THE   ANATOMY    A    BASIS    OF    STUDY  7 

centrally  by  the  brain  and  from  there  it  is  carried  to  all 
parts  of  the  body  by  the  spinal  cord  through  the  main 
channel  of  the  vertebrae,  and  from  this  it  branches  out 
to  stimulate  many  muscles.  The  stimulation  for  action  must 
come  from  the  nerve  centers  and  these  consequently  have 
much  to  do  with  the  quickness  and  the  strength  with  which 
a  horse  may  act.  It  has  been  determined*  in  the  races  of 
dogs  and  other  animals  showing  superior  speed,  that  the 
nerves  regulating  the  heart  and  lungs  have  greater  power 
than  in  the  instance  of  those  that  are  slower.  Another 
authorityt  who  has  given  this  feature  special  study  states 
that  the  degree  of  contraction  of  the  muscle  is  pro- 
portioned to  the  degree  of  stimulation.  This  general 
statement  serves  to  sustain  the  position  that  the  horse  of 
strong  nervous  organization  has  quicker  and  more  com- 
plete control  over  its  muscles  than  the  one  deficient  in 
this  feature. 

4.  Temperaments.  To  the  nervous  organization,  its 
tone  and  force,  we  can  largely  trace  the  temperaments  that 
are  characteristic  of  horses.  The  horse  of  nervous  tem- 
perament expresses  the  fact  by  being  a  willing  and 
enduring  worker  in  its  sphere;  while  the  horse  of  lym- 
phatic temperament  seemingly  lacks  zest  in  its  labors  for 
the  want  of  tone  in  its  nervous  system.  The  bilious  tem- 
perament reflects  itself  in  a  bad  temper  and  springs  chiefly 
from  the  condition  of  the  body;  while  the  sanguine  tem- 
perament, resulting  from  apparently  opposite  conditions, 
finds  expression  in  a  disposition  that  is  kind  and  willing. 
In  this  connection  it  should  be  stated  that  the  term  ner- 
vous temperament  is  not  used  in  the  sense  in  which  it  is 
commonly  accepted,  namely  a  lack  of  nervous  control; 
for  such  a  condition  usually  results  in  an  irritable  and 
erratic  temperament  which  is  devoid  of  results  as  ex- 
pressed in  work. 


*Mills,  Comparative  Physiology,  page  213. 
tSmith,  Physiology  of  Animals,  page  721. 


8  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

II.     JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES. 

/.    General  Examination. 

In  the  general  examination  of  horses,  the  form,  quality 
and  action  are  the  chief  features  requiring  consideration. 
This  examination  takes  in  the  horse  as  a  whole,  while  the 
structural  examination  requires  detailed  criticism  of  each 
part  independent  of  others. 

5.  Form — The  Contribution  of  Skeleton  and  Muscle. 

To  be  able  to  accurately  estimate  the  form  of  a  horse,  it  is 
necessary  to  understand  the  extent  to  which  the  form  is 
due  to  the  skeleton  and  how  much  of  it  depends  on  the 
muscular  development. 

A  comparison  of  a  skeleton  of  a  horse  with  a  living  and 
well  developed  animal  will  show  clearly  that  some  parts 
owe  their  form  to  the  framework  of  bone,  while  other  re- 
gions are  shaped  wholly  by  the  muscle.  Beginning  at  the 
head,  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  form  of  it  is  determined 
almost  altogether  by  the  bones  that  comprise  it.  The  out- 
lines of  the  neck,  however,  are  just  as  distinctly  due  to  the 
muscular  development  of  that  region.  The  shoulder  and 
chest  are  outlined  in  form  chiefly  by  the  skeleton  though 
smoothened  with  muscle.  The  shape  of  the  leg  from  the 
knee  upwards  to  the  body  is  determined  by  muscles  of 
that  region,  while  from  the  knee  to  the  fetlock  the  outline 
is  due  largely  to  the  tendons  that  make  the  leg  at  this 
point  appear  flat  from  the  side.  The  common  supposition 
is  that  the  leg  appears  flat  from  the  side  view  because  the 
bone  is  flat,  but  the  fact  is  the  flat  appearance  is  due  to 
the  degree  to  which  the  tendons  stand  back  from  the  bone. 

6.  Propelling  Power  Resides  in  Hind  Quarters.     A 

study  of  the  degree  to  which  the  skeleton  and  the  muscular 
development  contribute  to  the  form  of  a  horse,  brings  into 
prominence  the  idea  that  most  of  the  power  resides  in  the 
hind  parts.  The  fact  that  the  greatest  muscular  develop- 
ment is  in  that  region  would  indicate  this. 


Photo  by   Sehreiber. 

LEADER,  THE  SCOTCHMAN,  winner  of  numerous  prizes  at  the  Boston 
and  Philadelphia  horse  shows  in  the  heavy  harness  classes.  Illustrative 
of  the  fullness  and  symmetry  of  form  that  should  be  a  feature  of  the 
carriage  or  coach  type. 


Photo  from  Rider  and  Driver. 

THE  DEMON  and   LOTHARIO  showing  the  type  desirable  in  a  pair  of 
carriage  horses. 


Photo    by    Schreiber. 

HOOD'S  MCGREGOR,  record  '2  :L'f>%,  by  Robert  Mc-<  Jregor  2  :17Vt.  Winner 
of  three  first  prizes  Philadelphia  Morse  Show,  1SD7,  in  roadster  classes, 
and  also  first  for  best  appointed  road  rig. 


Photo   by    Lillie. 

Saddle  fielding,  COLUMBUS,  showing  Spanish  trot.  Winner  of  first 
prize  high  school  class  at  Kansas  City  Horse  Show,  1898  Owned  by 
C.  T.  Walker. 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  9 

It  will  be  noticed  that  the  form  of  the  loin,  the  shape  of 
the  croup,  the  fullness  of  the  thigh  and  quarters  are  due 
in  the  greatest  degree  to  the  extra  development  of  muscle 
in  these  parts.  The  front  quarter  of  the  horse  is  bare  of 
muscle  in  comparison  with  the  hind  quarter. 

Another  reason  for  accepting  this  theory  is  the  differ- 
ence in  the  manner  of  the  attachment  of  the  fore  legs  to 
the  body,  compared  to  that  of  the  hind  legs.  The  shoulder 
blade  is  loosely  attached  to  the  trunk  while  the  hind  leg 
connects  with  the  body  through  the  agency  of  an  unusually 
strong  ball  and  socket  joint.  The  shoulder  blade  plays 
1oosely,  seemingly  for  the  purpose  of  lessening  the  concus- 
sion the  leg  receives  from  contact  with  the  ground,  while 
the  hind  legs  in  their  connection  with  the  pelvis  make  a 
joint  that  is  the  most  powerful  of  the  body. 

7.  Tnree  Classes  of  Light  Horses.     The  light  horse  in 
respect  to  form  and  other  characteristics  may  be  divided 
into  three  main  classes :  the  carriage  horse,  the  road  horse 
and  the  saddle  horse.    These  may  be  spoken  of  as  the  most 
common  types  recognized  in  the  market,  while  the  pure 
bred  representatives  of  them  are  to  be  seen  in  the  breeds 
of  coach  horses,  the  standard  trotter  and  the  standard 
saddle  horse. 

8.  The  Coach  or  Carriage  Horse.    The  distinguishing 
features  of  the  coach  or  carriage  horse  are  its  symmetry 
and  action.    The  height  should  be  about  16  hands  to  make 
a  good  appearance.     In  contrast  with  the  roadster  the 
carriage   horse  is   very    smooth   and   symmetrical.     The 
smoothness  should  be  due  to  plumpness  of  the  muscle  over 
all  parts.     In  the  carriage  type  the  head  should  be  com- 
paratively small  and  lean,  the  ear  neat,  the  neck  long  and 
carried  gracefully,  the  body  round  and  plumjp  and  the 
limbs  clean  cut,  with  well  formed  and  durable  feet.  Grace- 
ful carriage  and  stylish  action  are  leading  qualifications. 

9.  Analysis  of  Style.     When  in  any  posture,  style  is  a 
very  desirable  attribute  in  any  carriage  horse.    A  critical 


10  JUDGING  LIGHT   HORSES 

examination  of  this  type  would  indicate  how  far  the  pos- 
session of  style  depends  on  the  adjustment  of  the  parts 
of  the  framework.  When  a  carriage  or  coach  horse  pos- 
sesses characteristic  style,  there  seems  to  be  an  appropri- 
ate blending  of  all  proportions  of  form.  In  analyzing  this 
it  will  be  found  that  most  of  the  lines  have  a  similar  direc- 
tion, in  addition  to  the  fullness  of  contour  already  dis- 
cussed. The  line  running  from  the  poll  to  the  nose  seems 
to  be  parallel  to  that  of  the  shoulder,  the  line  dividing  the 
pastern  also  has  a  similar  direction,  and  the  line  of  the 
thigh  in  the  hind  quarter  corresponds  with  the  slope  of  the 
hind  pastern.  Considering  the  lines  that  run  different 
from  these  it  will  be  noticed  that  the  one  made  by  the  arm 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  elbow  is  very  similar 
in  direction  to  that  made  by  the  ischium  of  the  pelvis  and 
this  again  is  similar  to  that  of  the  lower  thigh.  Each  part 
of  a  typical  carriage  horse  seems  to  bear  a  fixed  relation 
to  every  other  part  both  in  size,  length  and  slope  giving 
the  horse  that  symmetry  which  contributes  so  much  to  its 
style  and  beauty  while  standing  or  in  action. 

10.  The  Trotter  or  Roadster.  The  chief  characteris- 
tics of  the  roadster  are  speed  and  stamina.  The  ability  to 
trot  fast  is  a  desirable  quality  and  the  ability  to  maintain 
a  rapid  gait  is  equally  essential  in  a  horse  of  this  kind. 
In  addition  to  being  able  to  stand  steady  road  work,  such 
a  horse  must  be  well  mannered  so  as  to  be  safe  and 
pleasurable  to  drive. 

The  typical  roadster  may  be  said  to  be  about  15^2 
hands  high  and  about  a  thousand  pounds  in  weight.  In 
conformation  the  horse  of  this  class  is  somewhat  narrow 
in  front,  deep  chested,  wide  at  the  loin  and  very  muscular 
in  the  quarters.  Every  feature  about  the  horse  appears 
clean  cut,  giving  a  hard  finish  which  indicates  durability. 
The  lineaments  of  the  face  and  the  outlines  of  the  neck  and 
especially  the  distinctness  with  which  the  tendons  stand 
away  from  the  leg  are  very  desirable  features. 


Combination  saddle  and  harness  gelding  HIGHLAND,  owned  by  Pro- 
fessor C.  F.  Curtiss,  Iowa  State  College,  Ames,  Iowa.  A  winner 
at  state  fairs  in  this  class. 

Prize  winning  Kentucky  bred  saddle  horse,  COMPEER,  property  of 
Edwin  H.  Wetherbee,  New 'York  City.  The  Breeder's  Gazette,  referring 
to  this  horse  says:  "Of  magnificent  presence,  with  a  height  of  lb.3 
and  a  weight  of  1,100  pounds,  this  young  horse  wants  merely  to  settle 
to  his  height  by  the  development  of  another  year;  in  sound  feet,  elastic 
pasterns,  quantity  and  quality  of  bone,  height  at  withers,  range  of  neck 
and  strength  of  back,  .Compeer  makes  good  his  name.  Disposition  and 
manners  are  the  essentials  of  a  perfect  saddle  horse,  and  these  Compeer 
possesses  in  unusual  degree.  He  is  brilliant  in  his  action  ;  his  walk  is 
fine,  his  trot  distinguished  by  a  superb  flex  of  hocks,  while  his  haunches 
could  not  be  better  tucked  under  at  the  canter." 


Photograph  of  CRESCEUS  2:02i4,  the  champion  trotting  stallion  of 
the  world,  in  track  harness,  with  Geo  E.  Ketcham,  his  owner,  in  the 
sulky.  Cresceus  was  sired  by  Robert  McGregor  2:17%.  Owned  by 
Geo.  H.  Ketcham.  Toledo,  O.  Cresceus  trotted  a  mile  in  1:59%,  but  it 
was  disallowed,  owing  to  a  technicality. 


BEN  BOLT,  champion  light  weight  hunter,  Philadelphia  Horse  Show 
Association,  1900.  Owned  and  ridden  by  Miss  Marion  Halloway. 

EAGLE  PLUME,  champion  heavy  weight  hunter  and  winner  of  num- 
erous prizes  as  a  saddle  horse,  owned  by  Geo.  Pepper  &  Sons,  of 
Ontario,  Canada. 


Photo  by  Schreiber. 

Polo  pony  owned  by  Robert  M  Strawbridge,  Philadelphia.     Purchased 
at  a  cost  of  $1,000. 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  11 

The  Type  lacks  the  fullness  and  symmetry  that  are  char- 
acteristic in  the  carriage  or  coach  horse.  To  do  effective 
and  hard  work  on  the  road  is  the  sphere  of  the  roadster 
and  the  type  that  has  been  evolved  is  an  illustration  of 
the  evolution  of  a  form  for  a  specific  purpose.  The  type  of 
the  best  campaigners  that  have  marks  of  2:10  or  better 
will  show  a  similarity  that  indicates  the  type  towards 
which  the  trotter  is  tending.  Though  it  should  be  noted 
here  that  the  roadster  in  show  form  will  show  quite  dif- 
ferent outlines  from  one  that  has  been  subjected  to  the 
hard  training  that  the  campaigner  receives. 

To  describe  the  roadster  form  in  detail  it  may  be  said 
that  the  head  is  proportioned  to  the  rest  of  the  body, 
wide  between  the  eyes  and  somewhat  sharp  at  the  poll. 
The  neck  is  slim,  long  and  very  often  carried  somewhat 
straight  owing  to  the  continual  use  of  the  top  check.  The 
shoulder  slopes  very  markedly  and  extends  well  along  to- 
wards the  back.  The  arm  is  short  and  this  with  the  slope 
of  the  shoulder  makes  the  under  line  much  longer  than  the 
length  of  the  back.  The  fore  arm  is  long,  the  cannon 
short  and  the  pasterns  with  sufficient  length  and  slope. 
The  horse  appears  too  far  from  the  ground  in  proportion 
to  its  height.  The  back  is  short  and  strong  rising  some  at 
the  hips  and  the  croup  is  strongly  muscled.  Perhaps  the 
most  noticeable  feature  of  the  type  is  the  exceptional 
length  from  the  hip  joint  to  the  point  of  hock  and  then 
from  the  point  «f  the  hock  to  the  fetlock  joint  the  distance 
is  short,  making  the  hock  appear  as  if  set  low. 

11.  The  Pacer  as  a  Roadster.  As  a  roadster,  the  pacer 
has  many  claims  for  consideration  chiefly  on  account  of 
the  speed  that  characterizes  this  gait  and  the  fact  that  it 
is  easily  main  maintained  on  smooth  city  roads.  It  is, 
however,  mainly  the  quickness  with  which  full  speed  is 
attained  that  makes  the  pacer  so  popular  among  the  road 
riders  of  our  cities.  The  difficulty  that  a  pacer  encounters 


12  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

on  rough,  broken  roads  or  in  snow,  makes  it  necessary  to 
have  a  smooth  hard  road  to  enjoy  the  pleasures  of  the  gait. 
Among  pacers  there  is  often  noticeable  a  type  that  is 
not  desirable  in  any  class.  It  can  hardly  be  called  typical 
of  this  class  of  horses  for  many  of  those  that  are  fastest 
at  this  gait,  do  not  have  the  very  low  fore  hand,  the 
cramped  hind  quarters  or  bent-in  hocks  that  are  often  con- 
nected with  this  form.  The  horse  that  paces  smooth  and 
true  exhibits  an  easy  and  pleasing  manner  of  going  as  well 
as  one  effective  in  producing  speed,  but  there  are  many 
varieties  of  this  gait  that  are  the  reverse  of  this  because  of 
defects  in  conformation  which  preclude  rapid  movement 
in  any  other  manner. 

12.  The  Saddle  Horse.     The  type  of  the  saddle  horse 
is  somewhat  similar  to  that  of  the  carriage  horse  but  the 
typical  saddle  horse  shows  more  quality  and  better  man- 
ners than  any  other  class  of  light  horses.     Aside  from 
these  features  the  most  necessary   qualifications  of   the 
saddle  horse  are  the  ability  to  show  the  different  gaits 
that  are  required  of  horses  of  this  class.     The  standard 
performances  adopted  by  the  executive  committee  of  the 
American   Saddle   Horse   Association   are   the    following 
gaits:      (1)   Walk.      (2)    Trot.      (3)    Single  foot  or  rack. 
(4)    Canter.     (5)   Slow  pace,  running  walk  or  fox  trot. 
The  gait  known  as  single  foot  or  rack  is  very  similar  to 
the  pace,  except  that  in  the  latter  the  two  feet  of  the 
same  side  move  together,  while  in  the  single  foot  the  hind 
foot  reaches  the  ground  shortly  before  the  front  foot  on 
the  same  side.     The  gait  known  as  single  foot  is  consid- 
ered synonymous  with  that  of  the  rack  and  it  has  been 
described  as  exactly  intermediate  between  the  true  walk 
and  the  true  trot,  each  foot  apparently  moves  independent 
of  the  other  with  what  has  been  termed  a  "one  at  a  time 
movement." 

13.  Quality.    This  term  applied  to  horses  has  reference 
to  their  bones,  skin  and  hair.     Evidences  of  quality  are 
clearly  cut  features,  glpve-like  skin,  silky  hair  and  firm. 


THE  HARVESTER;  champion  trotting  stallion  of  the  world.  Record 
2.01.  Bred  at  Walnut  Hall  Farm,  Kentucky.  Owned  by  C.  K.  G. 
Billings,  New  York. 


MINOR  HEIR;    1.58%    champion  pacing  stallion   under  present  ruling 
conditions.     Owned  by  International  Stock  Food  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn. 


b  c 
H.  •/: 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  13 

clean  Done.  In  the  instance  of  the  horse  possessing  quality, 
the  lines  of  the  face  are  clearly  defined  and  in  every  region 
there  is  a  complete  absence  of  coarseness.  It  is  possible  in 
such  a  horse  to  easily  distinguish  the  muscles,  tendons  and 
bones  and  when  slightly  exerted,  so  that  the  coat  lies  smooth, 
the  veins  in  the  skin  show  clearly  in  an  intricate  net  work 
as  delicate  and  fine  grained  as  the  skin.  This  freedom  from 
coarseness  in  the  joints  and  tendons  shows  a  soundness  in 
these  features  that  guarantees  durability.  Coarse  hair  is 
associated  with  coarse  skin  and  that  is  a  true  indication  of 
soft,  spongy  bones  which  quickly  become  diseased  when 
subjected  to  the  strain  of  hard  usage  or  neglect. 

14.  Endurance  Indicated  by  Quality.     The  connection 
betAveen   a  horse's  staying   power  or   endurance   and   its 
quality  is  frequently  seen  when  subjected  to  severe  road 
work,  but  the  reason  for  the  connection  is  not  so  plainly 
evident.    The  fine  skin  that  is  one  of  the  features  of  high 
quality  is  considered  to  be  of  value  for  what  it  tells  of  the 
internal  organization  of  the  animal,  for  it  may  be  said  in  a 
general  way  that  the  one  skin  covers  the  horse  internally 
as  well  as  externally.     The  inner  coat  of  the  skin  which 
covers  the  ribs  and  all  external  parts  is  a  continuation  of 
that  which  lines  the  stomach  and  intestines.     If  the  skin 
covering  the  internal  region  is  soft,  fine  and  pliable  it  in- 
dicates that  the  secretions  are  healthy  and  it  would  seem 
natural  to  reason  from  this  that  the  lining  of  the  stomach 
would  be  in  the  same  state,  and  if  such  is  the  case  it  is  in 
a  better  condition  to  digest  the   food  that  goes  into  it, 
thereby  increasing  the  horse's  recuperative  powers  and 
endurance. 

15.  Durability  Associated  with  Quality.     Quality  in  a 
horse's  limbs  and  feet  is  especially  desirable  for  the  reason 
that  such  prove  more  durable  under  stress  or  strain.     In 
looking  for  this  feature  in  the  leg,  it  is  a  common  practice 
to  run  the  hand  over  the  cannon  bone.     In  doing  this  the 
skin  and  hair  are  felt  against  the  bone  and  if  there  is  the 


14  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

proper  quality  there,  the  skin  seems  to  melt  from  under  the 
hand  letting  the  latter  come  in  close  contact  with  the  bone 
which  feels  firm  and  smooth.  The  fingers  seem  to  touch 
each  other  as  they  pass  between  the  tendon  and  the  bone  of 
the  leg,  when  the  latter  has  the  right  degree  of  quality. 
It  is  a  fact  that  in  finely  bred  horses  that  undergo  unusual 
trials  of  endurance,  such  as  the  thoroughbred  and  the 
trotter,  the  texture  of  the  bone  is  decidedly  firmer  and 
closer  than  that  of  horses  bred  for  slower  work.  Another 
evidence  of  quality  is  to  be  seen  in  the  lines  showing  the 
division  of  the  muscles  as  these  should  appear  distinct  in 
the  horse  of  quality  and  the  joints  of  the  limbs  should  not 
show  any  fullness  but  be  clearly  defined  and  hard. 

16.  Action — Why  Highly  Valued.  In  the  market  for 
light  horses  there  is  no  single  feature  held  in  higher  estima- 
tion than  that  of  desirable  action.  It  has  different  degrees 
of  valuation  when  associated  with  the  various  types  of 
horses,  but  to  sell  well  they  all  must  have  as  much  as  may 
be  displayed  and  used  to  advantage.  The  fact  that  proper 
action  associated  with  the  coach  type  brings  exceptional 
prices  in  the  market,  would  of  itself  make  the  subject  an 
important  study,  but  when  its  influence  on  the  prices  of 
all  classes  of  horses  is  considered,  it  at  once  assumes  the 
position  of  being  the  most  valuable  characteristic  connected 
with  the  classes  of  light  horses. 

Good  action  is  mainly  desirable  for  its  utility  and  also 
for  the  many  other  qualities  which  it  indicates.  It  will 
readily  be  expected  that  the  horse  with  good  action  is  more 
durable  and  more  enjoyable,  as  the  work  is  done  easier,  and 
also  more  profitable,  for  more  of  it  is  accomplished.  But 
looking  further  into  the  subject  it  is  surprising  what  other 
attributes  are  dependent  on  it.  The  action  of  a  horse  re- 
flects its  temperament,  proves  the  balance  of  its  conforma- 
tion and  indicates  soundness.  With  right  action  there  must 
be  a  dash  and  zest  which  is  the  outflow  of  a  sanguine  tem- 
perament making  light  of  the  hardest  effort.  Then  the  con- 


High  stepper  in  action.  Photographed  from  "Driving  for  Pleasure," 
showing  the  extreme  degree  to  which  the  knee  and  hock  action  may  be 
developed  by  heavy  shoeing  and  training. 


LEADER,  THE  SCOTCHMAN,  in  action,  showing  the  folding  of  the  knett 
and  the  flexing  of  the  hock  desired  in  carriage  horses. 


1^^^^^^ 

:.;(.~"^^Pii^^^^^WB55flMHMB 


Photo  by  Philips,  Independence,  Iowa. 

ALLERTON,  record  2  :Q9y±,  in  action,  showing  the  reach  and  movement 
to  secure  greatest  speed. 


ONI.IXK,  record  '2  :()•!,  a  world  s  champion  4-year-old  pacer,  owned  by 
the  International  Stock  Food  Co.,  Minneapolis,  Minn.  The  photograph 
shows  eloarly  the  movement  of  the  legs  when  a  horse  paces  level  and 
true. 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  15 

formation  which  is  but  a  living  mechanism  of  levers,  pul- 
leys and  transmitters,  must  have  the  delicate  adjustment 
and  balance,  that  gives  grace  and  smoothness  to  every 
movement.  Further  there  cannot  be  any  unsoundness  to 
render  less  free  or  firm  the  step  as  both  these  characteris- 
tics must  be  prominent  in  actions  of  all  kinds.  The  more 
action  is  studied,  the  deeper  becomes  the  conviction  that 
every  attribute  of  the  horse  contributes  to  it.  Every  qual- 
ity comes  more  or  less  into  play  and  for  that  reason  the 
difficulties  in  the  way  of  securing  the  typical  action  of 
the  high  degree  of  merit  are  almost  insuperable. 

17.  The  Walk — Active,  Straight,  Level.    Excellence  at 
this  gait  is  a  very  desirable  quality  in  all  varieties  of  horses, 
and  unlike  the  trot  its  meritorious  features  are  the  same  in 
all,  as  it  has  no  connection  with  type.    In  the  enjoyment  of 
a  road  horse  there  is  much  to  admire  in  the  manner  in  which 
he  conducts  himself  when  walking.    It  is  questionable  as  to 
which  is  the  most  pleasurable  to  observe — the  walking  of 
the  horse  whose  step  is  evenly  timed  and  nervy,  or  the 
trotting  of  one  that  has  all  the  grace,  style  and  snap  that 
characterizes  the  coacher. 

18.  Observing  Straightness  of  the  Walk.     In  moving 
away  from  you  the  feet  of  the  active  walker  leave  the 
ground  with   a   quick   snap,   showing   in   its   passage  the 
reflection  of  the  whole  shoe.    After  leaving  the  ground  with 
this  peculiar  snap  the  foot  swings  upward  and  forward, 
then  the  knee  unfolds,  the  pastern  carries  the  foot  grace- 
fully forward  and  it  again  comes  to  the  ground  lightly  but 
firmly  with  the  characteristic  spring  and  snap  that  iden- 
tified the  first  movement.     The  feet  move  straight  away, 
swerving  neither  to  the  left  or  to  the  right,  nor  should  the 
folding  of  the  knees  or  the  flexing  of  the  hocks  result  in  an 
outward  pitching  or  spreading.    A  horse  that  will  lift  and 
plant  his  foot  in  the  way  described  almost  invariably  has 
the  upheaded  and  commanding  appearance  in  movement 
which  is  so  admirable  in  the  harness  horse. 


16  JUDGING     LIGHT    HOB&ES 

19.  Manner  of  Noting  Levelness.  The  crucial  test  of  the 
balance  of  a  horse's  walk  is  the  side  view.     Any  variation 
from  proper  structural  proportions  results  in  wobbling,  hob- 
bling or  an  otherwise  uneven  walk,  and  all  these  are  readily 
seen  from  the  side.    The  levelness  with  which  a  horse  walks 
is  one  of  the  best  evidences  that  the  legs  work  in  harmony. 
The  most  common  deflection  from  this  is  attributable  to  a 
long,  slim  coupling  which  gives  the  onlooker  the  impression 
that  the  horse  might  break  away  into  two  parts  near  the 
region  of  the  loin.    In  defective  conformations  of  this  kind 
the  stride  of  the  hind  limbs  is  short  and  he  usually  has  an 
uneven,  choppy  gait  that  is  unsightly  as  well  as  ineffectual 
in  covering  distances.     On  the  other  hand  an  opposite  rela- 
tion of  the  parts,  close  coupling  and  short  back,  with  long 
legs,  is  likely  to  give  use  to  a  slovenly  swinging  gait,  pro- 
ducing clicking,  stumbling  or  other  deficiencies.    If  there  is 
a  flaw  in  the  mechanism  of  the  front  legs,  it  is  usually  made 
evident  by  the  movement  of  the  front  feet,  especially  as 
they  are  about  to  touch  the  ground.    If  the  limb  proportions 
are  ungainly  the  feet  do  not  seem  to  reach  the  ground  at 
the  proper  stage,  either  turning  too  much  on  the  heel  or 
not  turning  enough  and  precipitating  the  toe.    From  be- 
hind it  is  easy  to  observe  if  the  walk  of  the  hind  limbs 
is  level  thus  being  free  from  any  hitching,  wobbling  or 
unevenness  in  the  stride. 

20.  The  High  Stepper  in  Action.     The  highest  priced 
action  in  the  general  horse  market  is  that  of  the  high 
stepper.     The  peculiarity  of  this  action  consists  in  lifting 
the  knees  inordinately  high  and  flexing  the  hocks  so  that 
they  come  close  to  the  body  and  keep  the  legs  well  under  it. 
From  the  standpoint  of  action  alone,  the  higher  the  knees 
and  the  hocks  are  lifted  the  more  valuable  is  the  horse,  pro- 
vided the  type  and  other  features  more  common  are  equally 
satisfactory.  The  feet  must  be  thrown  forward  without  any 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  17 

dishing  on  either  side  and  the  hocks  must  pass  each  other 
close  and  in  line  with  the  forward  movement.  It  is  easy  to 
understand  that  while  this  method  of  movement  is  the  most 
showy  and  stylish,  it  is  not  serviceable  action  for  a  road 
horse.  The  front  legs  soon  succumb  to  the  heavy  concus- 
sion they  would  be  called  upon  to  stand  under  hard  driv- 
ing. But  this  action  is  sought  only  in  the  horse  that  is  used 
for  short  drives  about  the  city  where  style  is  paramount  to 
speed  and  stamina.  While  it  is  recognized  that  the  high 
stepper  should  have  as  many  as  possible  of  the  other  qual- 
ities of  excellence  in  addition  to  high  action,  yet  all  others 
are  considered  of  minor  value  among  horses  of  this  class. 
"All-around  action  only  to  be  considered"  is  the  current 
phrase  in  the  prize  lists  that  provide  classes  for  competition 
among  the  high  steppers,  which  means  a  combination  of 
shoulder,  knee  and  hock  action. 

21.    The  Carriage  Horse — Manners  When  in  Motion.   A 

connoisseur  of  horses  will  see  much  more  than  the  legs  of  a 
carriage  horse  when  moving.  As  such  a  horse  moves  before 
an  appropriate  vehicle  with  the  latitude  of  a  light  hand 
assisting  him  there  are  flashes  of  gracefulness  from  every 
motion.  AYith  this  there  is  a  quality  of  mind  that  gives 
buoyancy  to  the  step  and  accounts  in  no  small  degree  for 
the  uplifted  carriage  of  the  head.  It  is  expressive  of  a 
happy  temperament  that  gives  gracefulness  to  every  poise 
and  smooth  flow  to  every  movement.  Even  such  a  minor 
organ  as  an  ear  plays  its  part,  the  eye,  too,  shows  the  fire 
from  within  and  challenges  the  critic  for  its  meed  of  praise 
in  measuring  the  step  and  alertness  in  giving  it  security. 
Scan  the  lines  of  the  neck,  and  notice  their  tenseness  and 
yet  the  unusual  elasticity  it  shows  when  occasion  offers  for 
the  movement  of  greater  gracefulness.  The  shoulder  plays 
with  freedom  and  the  smooth  turned  loin  and  quarter  seems 
the  only  region  that  are  not  taking  part  in  this  unusual 


18  JUDGING    LIGHT    HOUSES 

display,   though  in  this  immobility  they  show   their  renl 
strength. 

22.  Straight  and  Regular  Action.  As  to  the  action  of  the 
fore  legs,  it  is  straight  away  with  continuous  folding  and 
unfolding.     In  the  action  of  the  carriage  horse  there  must 
be  some  style  and  dash  and  high  lifting  of  the  feet,  but 
never  enough  of  it  to  make  the  action  unserviceable.    At  no 
time  is  the  fore  leg  held  in  poise  as  it  does  not  dwell  either 
in  flexion  or  extension.     The  foot  snaps  from  the  ground 
and  is  then  carried  forward  while  the  limb  unfolds,  as  if 
following  the  rim  of  a  wheel.    It  seems  to  reach  the  ground 
at  the  right  stage  of  the  unfolding  so  that  it  is  not  held  in 
suspense  at  any  point  along  the  line  of  descent.  The  feet 
pass  close  and  in  a  straight  line  so  that  there  is  no  swaying 
or  dropping  down  of  the  fore  hand  with  each  step.    The 
hind  foot  leaves  the  ground  with  the  same  quick  movement 
and  at  no  time  is  it  allowed  to  hang  back  so  as  to  give  the 
horse    the    appearance    of    not    gathering    himself    well 
together. 

23.  The  Driver's  Sensation  of  Action.  After  all  is  writ- 
ten that  it  is  possible  to  write  about  the  action  of  the  car- 
riage horse,  there  is  something  else  that  must  go  with  it 
which   cannot  be   described   with   sufficient   vividness   to 
make  the  novice  appreciate  it.     It  has  something  to  do 
with  power  and  its  connection  between  the  animal  and  its 
master  seems  to  be  the  driving  lines.     As  you  sit  behind 
the  horse  of  true  carriage  action  and  conduct  you  feel 
your  proximity  to  a  powerful  mechanism  that  is  under- 
going a  test  of  its  minutest  parts.    If  anything  fails  every- 
thing will  be  demoralized  but  it  is  the  feeling  of  strength 
and  power  in  the  animal  that  allays  unnecessary  fears. 

Without  leaving  this  feature  connected  with  the  carriage 
horse  let  us  study  its  relation  to  the  trotter.  Substance  and 
strength  in  the  carriage  horse  gives  momentum  to  the  occu- 
pants of  the  somewhat  cumbersome  carriage,  while  the 
trotter  loses  these  for  speed  and  stamina.  Between  the 
trotter  and  its  driver  the  feeling  is  that  of  flight  instead 
of  power  in  motion.  The  difference  in  the  feeling  result- 


An  easy  and  satisfactory  method  of  opening  a  horse's  mouth.  The 
two  thumbs  are  inserted  just  back  of  the  incisors  and  the  lower  is 
pressed  down  so  that  the  horse  drops  the  lower  jaw.  It  is  usually  easy 
in  this  way  to  make  observations  regarding  the  teeth. 


Proper  method  of  lifting  and  holding  the  foot  of  a  horse.  In  seeking 
to  lift  the  front  foot  of  a  horse  the  hand  should  be  run  over  the  cannon 
in  the  manner  indicated  in  one  of  the  photographs.  Usually  a  horse 
will  lift  his  foot  as  soon  as  this  is  done.  To  hold  it  firmly  without 
much  effort,  the  proper  plan  is  to  hold  the  toe  with  the  foot  doubled 
against  the  elbow  as  shown  in  the  above  photograph. 


The  illustration  on  the  right  hand  shows  a  well  bred  and  intelligent 
head,  the  subject  being  LOLA  RONAN,  standard  bred  road  mare  owned 
by  the  author,  while  that  to  the  left  is  a  photograph  of  a  head  showing 
lack  of  breeding  and  deficient  in  fullness  of  forehead. 


Two  photographs  to  illustrate  the  differences  in  the  appearance  of 
horses'  heads  when  they  are  trimmed  and  untrimmed.  The  head  shown 
trimmed  is  that  of  Boralma,  2  :08,  the  unbeaten  4-year-old  trotter.  * 
The  trim  appearance  of  the  head  is  to  some  extent  due  to  the  fact  that 
the  foretop  has  been  clipped,  the  ears  trimmed,  the  mane  clipped  back 
of  the  foretop.  The  companion  head,  on  the  right,  though  of  a  French 
Coach  mare  showing  abundance  of  quality,  is  yet  very  coarse  in  appear- 
ance, largely  due  to  the  fact  that  the  head  has  not  been  trimmed.  The 
mane  has  not  been  cut  away.  The  long  hair  is  in  the  ears,  the  foretop 
has  not  been  removed,  while  the  long  growth  of  coarse  hair  below  the 
jaw  has  not  been  trimmed. 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  19 

ing  from  following  the  movement  of  these  two  classes  of 
horses  might  be  better  expressed  by  reference  to  the  dif- 
ference in  the  feeling  that  one  has  when  standing  beside 
a  swift  turning  windmill,  as  compared  with  the  effects  of 
observing  the  turn  of  a  ponderous  water  wheel.  The  for- 
mer takes  advantage  of  every  breath  of  wind  and  speeds 
a  merry  clip  without  apparent  exertion  or  strength;  the 
other  impresses  one  at  once  with  its  power  and  in  a  lesser 
degree  with  its  combination  of  strength  and  speed. 

24.  The  Trotter — Speed  and  Stamina.  The  leading  fea- 
ture of  the  action  of  the  trotter  is  speed  at  the  trotting  gait, 
but  there  are  many  others  that  must  be  companions  of  this 
to  result  in  the  greatest  development  and  the  chief  of  these 
is  stamina  or  the  ability  to  maintain  the  necessary  gait. 
It  is  generally  thought  that  if  a  horse  has  speed  he  has  the 
one  essential  necessary  to  make  a  trotter  or  a  good  road 
horse.  Not  only  is  speed  desirable  but  there  must  be  a  true 
balance  of  parts,  that  insures  their  protection  together  with 
trueness  of  stride.  Being  true  and  level  gaited  guarantees 
the  greatest  durability  and  that  with  an  ambitious  turn  of 
mind  gives  us  that  very  desirable  quality  in  the  trotter, 
termed  "gameness"  or  stamina.  Of  all  features  of  the  trot- 
ter's action  it  must  be  the  most  evident  that  it  is  not  in 
the  least  wasteful  of  energy.  While  that  of  the  carriage 
horse  or  high  stepper  must  display  effort,  the  trotter 
should  move  so  as  to  leave  the  least  impression  of  this. 

Less  roll  to  the  knee,  more  propulsion  from  the  stifle  and 
less  motion  in  the  hocks  carries  the  trotter  forward  closer 
to  the  ground  and  with  less  expenditure  of  force  and  with- 
out the  higher  lifting  of  the  knee  and  hock  which  is  char- 
asteristic  of  the  high  stepper.  There  is  much  more  exten- 
sion of  the  limbs  in  the  trotter,  as  shown  in  the  reach  of 
the  fore  leg,  while  the  hind  legs  pass  back  farther  and 
reach  farther  forward  than  in  the  action  of  the  high 


20  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

stepper  or  carriage  horse  as  the  latter  must  keep  his  legs 
under  him  to  gather  himself  together  in  the  proper  degree. 
A  wider  spread  in  the.  movement  of  the  hind  legs  in  the 
instance  of  the  trotter  is  not  as  bad  a  fault  as  it  would 
be  if  associated  with  the  carriage  horse.  It  is  frequently 
noticeable  as  a  distinction  between  the  action  of  a  trotter 
and  coacher,  that  the  latter  is  balanced  in  stride  when 
going  an  easy  gait  but  becomes  unbalanced  or  weak  when 
urged  beyond  it,  while  the  trotter  may  very  often  show 
an  uneven  gait  when  moving  slowly  but  when  urged  to 
the  limit  of  its  speed,  displays  truly  balanced  action  with- 
out any  tendency  towards  losing  its  stride. 

25.  The  Pacing  Gait — Level  and  True.  A  study  of  this 
gait  will  disclose  the  fact  that  there  is  more  variations  in  it 
than  in  any  other  form  of  action.  Horses  pace  in  many 
ways,  some  lurching,  others  shuffling  and  many  more  wob- 
bling in  an  unsightly  manner;  but,  however  they  may  go, 
they  are  nearly  all  characterized  by  possessing  speed.  A 
level  and  true  pacer  displays  a  sightly  gait.  In  pacing  level 
and  true  the  body  remains  steadier  than  in  any  other  move- 
ment. The  legs  move  in  harmony  with  the  directness  of  a 
machine.  The  nervy,  machine-like  pace  peculiar  to  many  of 
the  fast  pacing  animals  is  a  study  in  the  degree  to  which  the 
minimum  of  effort  results  in  the  maximum  of  speed.  Some 
horses  pace  because  of  bent  hocks,  others  because  of  ungain- 
ly proportion  but  when  the  gait  results  from  breeding  and  is 
the  outcome  of  straight  and  direct  movement,  it  is  difficult  to 
imagine  a  gait  with  less  friction  or  display  of  effort.  In  the 
instance  of  the  horse  that  possesses1  true  excellence  at  this 
gait,  if  you  were  to  shut  off  your  view  of  the  limbs  in  mo- 
tion, you  would  have  the  impression  that  the  animal  was 
standing  on  a  rapidly  moving  train  hidden  from  your  view, 
so  little  does  the  body  and  other  parts  above  the  line  make 
any  display  of  effort.  As  a  rule  the  pace  from  the  stand- 
point of  the  spectator  is  an  unsightly  gait,  but  one  that  is 
usually  thoroughly  enjoyable  from  the  point  of  view  of  the 
driver.  Owing  to  the  ease  with  which  the  pacer  moves  and 


These  photographs  have  been  selected  to  show  the  difference  in  the 
dispositions  of  horses.  The  upper  one  shows  desirable  temperament 
with  harmony  between  horse  and  rider.  The  lower  one  shows  horse 
and  rider  out  of  touch  with  each  other  and  the  horse  discloses  by  ex- 
pression and  countenance  a  strong  will  and  vicious  disposition. 


Photo  from  Horse  Show  Monthly. 

A  row  of  good  heads.  The  heads  of  the  horses  shown  here  indicate 
a  high  order  of  intelligence,  borne  out  by  the  fact  that  they  all  possess 
sufficient  intellect  to  act.  Beginning  on  the  left  hand  their  names  are 
Charley  Adams,  Nixon,  Alice,  Blair,  Charlie  Ross,  Ella,  Maud.  They 
are  used  in  the  stage  plays  Sporting  Life  and  the  Great  Ruby.  They 
are  owned  by  the  LeRoy  Payne  Co.,  of  171  Michigan  Avenue,  Chicago. 
Without  exception  they  show  intelligent  heads  in  that  they  display  full 
foreheads,  open  countenances,  large  eyes,  with  abundant  width  between 
them. 


Rules  Governing  Position  ol  the  Limbs  of  the  Horse  When  Standing. 


FRONT  VIEW  OF  FORE  LIMBS. 

A  vertical  line  downward  from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  Cut  A  of  Plate  I  represents  the  right  conformation.  B,  C.  D. 
£.  F  and  G  represent  common  defects. 


A 


SIDE  VIEW  OF  FORE  LIMBS. 

A  vertical  line  drawn  downward  from  the  center  of  the  elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the 
centerof  the  Unee  and  pasteru  joints  and  back  of  the  foot;  and  a  vertical  line  drawn  down- 
ward from  the  middle  of  the  arm  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot.  Cut  A  of  Plate  II  re- 
presents the  right  conformation.  B,  shows  the  foot  placed  too  far  back;  C,  too  far  forward; 
D.  "knee  sprung"  and  E.  "knock  kneed." 


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SIDE  VIEW  OF  HIND  LIMBS. 

A  vertical  line  drawn  downward  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot 
and  divide  the  gaskln  In  the  middle;  and  a  vertical  line  drawn  from  the  point  of  the  buttock 

should  coincide  with  the  angle  of  the  bock  and  pastern  joints.    Cut  A  of  Plate  III  represents 
right  conformation.    B,  Cand  D  represent  common  defects. 

REAR  VIEW  OF  HIND   LIMB5. 

A  vertical  1 

of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foo 
and  K  represent  common  defects 


drawn  downward  from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center 
Cut  A  of  Plate  IV  represents  conformation.    B,  C,  1> 


STBUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  21 

the  lightness  with  which  they  speed  over  pavements,  com- 
bined with  the  rapidity  with  which  they  can  reach  their 
speed,  the  pacer  has  become  very  popular  among  city  road 
riders. 

77.     Structural  Examination. 

Thus  far  the  features  that  enter  largely  into  the  general 
appearance  of  the  horse,  the  form,  quality  and  action,  have 
been  considered,  but  in  addition  to  these  qualities  there  are 
numerous  details  of  structure  and  soundness  which  have  a 
predominating  influence  on  the  value  of  any  of  the  classes 
that  have  been  discussed.  Not  only  must  horses  of  the 
classes  described  prove  sound  to  be  of  service,  but  to  sell 
well  they  must  also  show  the  strength  of  structure  that 
wards  off  the  possibility  of  any  urysoundness  developing  in 
the  future.  A  badly  constructed  hock  without  a  curb  may 
depreciate  the  value  of  the  horse  fully  as  much  as  a  curb 
present  on  a  strong  and  well  formed  hock.  The  first  does 
not  have  a  curb  solely  because  it  has  never  been  subjected 
to  a  strain,  while  the  curb  in  the  latter  instance  must  have 
been  due  to  stress  of  more  than  common  severity.  To 
discuss  this  division  of  the  subject  in  detail  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  arrange  the  material  that  follows  so  as  to  consider 
the  various  parts  of  a  horse  completely. 

26.  Head — Straight,  Lean.  The  shape  of  the  head  and 
the  countenance  of  a  horse  adds  greatly  to  its  appearance, 
and  as  this  is  the  part  which  is  most  frequently  observed  it 
becomes  of  some  importance.  The  line  from  the  ears  to  the 
point  of  the  nose  as  seen  from  the  side  should  be  almost 
straight.  In  scanning  the  photographs  of  a  great  number  of 
trotters  it  will  be  noticed  that  nearly  all  stallions  have 
slight  Roman  noses  while  most  of  the  mares  have  slightly 
dished  faces,  a  distinction  which  seems  to  be  characteristic 
of  the  sexes.  As  a  rule  it  will  be  found  that  horses  of  very 
prominent  Roman  noses  are  self  willed.  Small  nostrils  are 
generally  associated  with  this  form  of  nose  and  as  a  conse- 
quence we  find  in  such  instances,  that  the  respiratory  or 
breathing  organs  lack  development.  The  features  of  the 


22  JUDGING    LIGHT    HOESES 

face  should  be  distinct,  without  the  least  appearance  of 
coarseness  or  meatiness.  A  lean  face  is  suggestive  of  good 
quality  in  a  horse.  The  muzzle  should  be  fine  in  quality 
to  make  the  head  appear  at  its  best.  Between  the  eyes 
there  should  be  breadth  enough  to  give  a  pleasing  frank- 
ness to  the  countenance.  It  is  a  point  of  practical  value 
as  an  index  to  the  brain  development  which  is  of  much 
importance  in  a  light  horse,  for  in  this  class  intelligence 
is  a  merit  of  high  value.  While  it  is  granted  that  the  intel- 
ligence of  a  horse  depends  mostly  on  the  training  received, 
yet  there  is  a  marked  difference  in  the  benefit  which 
horses  derive  from  training,  and  that  difference  may  only 
be  accounted  for  by  variations  in  the  brain  development. 

27.  Nostrils — Large,   Open.     The  nostrils  of  a  horse 
should  be  large,  thin,  dilatable  and  of  a  pink  color.    While 
there  should  be  no  discharges  from  them,  they  should 
always  have  the  appearance  of  being  moist. 

28.  Eyes — Full,  Clear.    A  bright  eye  indicates  vigor  of 
constitution,  that  is,  stamina,  staying  power,  or  bottom,  as 
it  is  sometimes  called.     It  is  also  associated  with  a  happy 
disposition  and  it  seems  to  be  this  that  accounts  for  the 
fact  that  some  horses  do  an  enormous  amount  of  work  with 
little  worry  and  strain  upon  themselves.    A  large,  full,  clear 
eye  is  indicative  of  a  kind,  generous  disposition  and  good 
health. 

29.  Ears — Erect,  Active.    The  ears  should  be  close  to- 
gether and  carried  in  an  erect  position.     They  should  be 
active  and  somewhat  pointed.     Lop  ears  indicate  lassitude, 
or  in  plainer  words,  laziness.     When  it  is  noticed  that  a 
horse  does  not  shift  or  move  either  of  its  ears  to  any  extent 
to  catch  sound,  it  is  safe  to  presume  that  it  is  afflicted  with 
deafness.     On  the  other  hand  if  it  is  continually  moving 
them,  it  is  advisable  to  inspect  the  eyesight  carefully  as  it 
is  likely  that  the  extra  labor  imposed  on  the  ears  has  its 
origin  in  the  defect  of  one  or  both  of  the  eyes. 


STBUCTUBAL  EXAMINATION  23 

30.  Jaw  Bones — Wide,  Sharp.     Between  the  jaw  bones 
there  should  be  sufficient  width  for  a  large  wind-pipe  and 
also  enough  to  allow  the  head  to  play  freely  on  the  neck. 
When  the  space  between  the  jaw  bones  is  very  narrow  it 
will  often  be  noticed  that  the  horse  carries  his  head  stiffly, 
but  when  there  is  sufficient  width  in  this  region,  the  head  is 
usually  carried  gracefully  and  moved  freely  on  the  neck. 
The  throttle  or  throat  latch  should  be  light  without  any  un- 
natural fullness  between  the  jaw  bones  or  heaviness  at  the 
juncture  of  the  head  and  neck. 

31.  Neck — Arched,  Muscled.  A  nicely  moulded  and  dis- 
tinctly chiseled  neck  of  sufficient  length,  carrying  the  head 
gracefully  is  one  of  the  most  beautiful  features  of  the  light 
horse.     Extending  towards  the  shoulder  the  neck  should 
swell  gradually  so  as  to  join  the  body  smoothly.    The  wind- 
pipe should  be  large  and  appear  distinct  from  the  rest  of 
the  neck  and  the  upper  outlines  of  the  latter  should  be 
sharp.     While  many  excellent  road  horses  have  what  is 
called  a  ewe  neck,  it  is  none  the  less  a  defect  as  it  detracts 
very  much  from  a  symmetrical  appearance. 

32.  Chest — Deep,  Projecting.     In  the  light  horse  that  is 
called  upon  for  light  work,  the  chest  should  obtain  its  capa- 
city more  by  depth  than  breadth.     The  reason  for  this  is 
that  the  deeper  chest  permits  the  freer  play  of  the  shoulder. 
It  is  easy  to  see  that  swift,  smooth  action  of  the  fore  legs 
is  hardly  possible  in  the  broad  chested  horse,  mainly  be- 
cause it  throws  them  too  far  apart  and  out  of  line  with 
those  behind.    It  will  often  be  noticed  in  this  direction  that 
too  much  width  causes  the  horse  to  pitch  or  roll  in  its 
action.     A  deep  chest  is  evidence  of  staying  power.     The 
conformation  of  noted  campaigners  on  the  turf,  such  as 
Mary    Marshall    (2:12),    The    Abbot    (2:031/4),    Cresceus 
(2:0214),  may  be  cited  to  illustrate  full  development  in 
this  feature. 


24  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

33.  Shoulders — Long,   Oblique.     The  conformation  of 
the  shoulder  is  one  of  the  parts  of  all  light  horses  that  re- 
quires critical  scanning.     To  give  elasticity  to  the  move- 
ment of  saddle  horses  and  to  permit  of  quick  and  clean 
action  in  the  roadster,  the  shoulder  should  be  long   and 
oblique.     An  upright  shoulder  is  very  likely  to  result  in 
short,  stilted  action,  frequently  accompanied  by  stumbling, 
and  it  is  quite  a  fertile  cause  of  such  bone  diseases  as  side- 
bones  and  ringbones.     The  high  action  which  is  desired  in 
the   coach  horse   and   the   long   reaching,   clean   action   so 
sought  after  in  the  roadster  depends  as  much  on  the  ob- 
liquity and  freedom  of  movement  in  the  shoulder,   as  in 
any  other  feature.    In  addition,  a  sloping  and  long  shoulder 
strengthens  the  back  and  extends  the  length  of  the  under- 
line.    The  muscular  development  of  the  shoulder  should 
also  be  carefully  noted,  for  if  there  is  an  unusual  bareness 
or  lack  of  muscular  covering  it  would  denote  the  fact  that 
sweeny  has  affected  it. 

34.  Fore  Legs — Broad,  Cordy,  Straight.     The  appear- 
ance of  the  fore  leg  from  the  side  should  show  it  to  be  flat 
and  cordy.     The  flatness  shows  the  tendons  to  be  properly 
attached  and  some  distance  from  the  bone  and  the  clean  cut 
appearance   denotes   the   absence  of  any  coarseness   about 
the  legs.    Viewing  the  legs  from  in  front  and  using  a  plumb 
line  it  will  be  found  in  the  instance  of  a  leg  that  is  straight, 
that  a  perpendicular  line  downward  from  the  point  of  the 
shoulder,  should  equally  divide  the  knee,  cannon,  pastern 
and  foot.     Viewing  the  fore  leg  from  the  side,  a  similar 
line  dropped  from  the  center  of  the  leg  at  a  point  where 
it  joins  the  body  should  nearly  divide  the  leg  until  the 
fetlock  joint  is  reached  and  from  there  to  the  ground  it 
should  fall  exactly  behind  the  foot.     Any  variation  from 
these  two  lines  shows  crookedness  from  either  point  of  view. 
The  leg  should  be  long  from  the  elbow  to  the  knee,  for  the 
reason  that  free  and  clean  action  follows  such  a  conforma- 
tion.    In  these  parts  it  will  be  noticed  that  most  of  the 
muscles  extending  and  flexing  the  leg,  are  located  between 


• 


The  photo  on  the  left,  HUMMER  6112,  shows  a  sloping  shoulder  and 
a  foreleg  of  quality  set  properly  and  strongly  supported  below  the  knee 
with  correct  pastern  and  excellent  foot.  Subject  of  the  other  photo  is 
too  straight  in  shoulder  and  pastern  with  weak  knees 


Photo  of  a  smoothly   turned   horse,  especially   round   ribbed  and  on 
that  acount  appearing  too  long  in  the  legs,  though  not  really  so. 


The  illustration  on  the  right  is  a  photograph  of  the  hind  quarter  of 
ST.  SAVIOUR,  a  thoroughbred  stallion,  showing  a  clean,  strong  hock  and 
properly  set  hind  leg.  The  photograph  on  the  left  shows  a  curb  on  the 
right  leg  due  to  a  weakly  supported  hock  also  improperly  set. 


The   left  illustration   shows   a   hind   leg  too   straight,    while   the   right 
one  shows   the  other  extreme  in  being  set   too  far  back. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  25 

the  elbow  and  the  knee.  If  this  region  is  long,  the  muscle 
must  necessarily  be  long  and  that  produces  quick  and  easy 
action.  The  muscle  of  the  fore  arm  flexes  and  extends  the 
rest  of  the  leg,  and  in  order  that  these  motions  may  take 
place  with  the  least  expenditure  of  power  the  course  over 
which  it  must  travel  must  be  as  short  as  possible;  that  is, 
the  cannon  running  from  the  knee  to  the  fetlock  should  be 
much  shorter  than  from  the  knee  to  the  elbow. 

Mr.  H.  T.  Helm  has  made  a  careful  study  of  the  effect 
that  the  proportions  of  these  parts  to  each  other  have  upon 
the  horse's  action.  He  has  measured  a  great  many  horses 
and  finds  that  their  action  in  the  fore  legs  seems  to  be 
governed  by  the  proportionate  length  of  the  fore  arm  and 
the  cannon.  He  found  that  Administrator  has  superior 
action  in  front,  and  that  his  cannon  was  11%  inches  long, 
and  the  fore  arm  21  inches  long.  About  the  same  propor- 
tions were  found  to  exist  in  the  fore  legs  of  George  Wilkes, 
and  there  was  no  lack  of  knee  action  in.his  movement.  The 
actual  proportions  were  10%  "to  20  inches.  In  Governor 
Sprague  the  cannon  was  11  inches  and  the  fore  arm  21 
inches,  and  here  the  front  action  was  not  quite  as  rounding 
as  that  of  George  Wilkes.  In  the  instance  of  St.  Lawrence, 
the  proportions  were  ll1/^  to  21  inches  and  the  action  was 
noted  to  be  far  reaching  and  gently  curving.  It  will  be 
easily  understood  that  the  strain  upon  the  knees  would  be 
greater  in  those  horses  that  were  long  in  the  cannons  in 
comparison  with  the  length  of  the  fore  arm,  and  it  will 
usually  be  found  that  such  a  conformation  predisposes  a 
horse  to  weak  knees.  On  the  other  hand  when  the  fore  arm 
is  inordinately  long  the  tendency  is  for  the  front  legs  to 
bend  back  at  the  knees  and  give  rise  to  what  is  commonly 
termed  calf  knees. 

35.  Arms  —  Short,  Thrown  Forward.  The  humerus 
which  forms  the  arm  should  be  short  and  appear  compara- 


26  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

lively  straight.    When  it  is  so,  it  gives  a  horse  an  upright 
appearance  and  adds  to  the  latter 's  style. 

36.  Elbows — Free.     The  space  between  the  leg  and  the 
body  should  permit  of  easy  insertion  of  the  hand.     If  the 
elbow  is  closer  than  this  or  tied  in,  as  it  is  termed,  the  toes 
are  usually  thrown  out;  or  if  the  opposite  is  the  case,  the 
toes  are  likely  to  be  thrown  in,  which  makes  the  action  of 
the  horse  awkward  and  dangerous. 

37.  Fore  Arms — Wide,  Muscled.     Perhaps  the  most  im- 
portant matter  to  notice  in  examining  the  fore  leg  is  the 
size  of  the  fore  arm,  or  the  muscular  development  observable 
just  below  the  juncture  of  the  leg  and  the  body.     As  fat 
accumulates  very  little  there  it  is  a  safe  criterion  of  the 
muscular  development  of  the  animal. 

38.  Knees— Wide,  Deep,  Straight.     The  knees  should 
be  broad  in  front,  much  broader  than  the  rest  of  the  leg, 
either  above  or  below,  and  the  pisiform  bone,  which  is  the 
bone  forming  the  projection  at  the  back  of  the  knee,  should 
be  sharp  and  prominent,  for  to  this  some  of  the  most  im- 
portant muscles  of  the  fore  leg  are  attached.     Breadth  is 
desirable  in  such  joints,  because  of  the  fact  that  the  con- 
cussion is  more  evenly  distributed,  and  better  spent  by  the 
many  bones   forming  the   joint,   when   their   surfaces   are 
large.    The  most  common  defects  of  the  knee  are  calf  knees, 
knock  knees,  knee  sprung,  speedy  cut  and  scars. 

39.  Cannons — Wide,  Short,  Large  Sinews.  There  should 
be  very  little  shrinkage  below  the  knee  as  the  joints  require 
as  much  support  as  possible.     This  defect  of  being  tied  in 
below  the  knee  is  one  of  the  most  common  weaknesses  to 
be  seen  in  the  fore  legs  of  light  horses.     A  light  horse  of 
common  size  should  measure  at  least  8  inches  at  this  point. 
The  cannon  should  be  short,  wide  and  clean  and  the  sinews 
should  be  back  from  the  bone.     It  is  sometimes  noticeable 
that  the  cannon  is  thicker  than  usual  which  is  generally 
caused  by  hard  road  work. 

40.  Pasterns  —  Sloping,  Strong.     The  pastern  should 
stand  at  an  angle  of  45  degrees  with  the  ground,  and  with 


A  fully  developed  bog  spavin  is  shown  on  the  left  leg  in  the  right 
hand  illustration,  while  the  one  in  the  left  illustration  shows  a  large 
ringbone  at  the  base  of  the  pastern. 


A  clean,  clearly  defined  hock  appears  in  the  photo  on  the  right  shown 
from  the  point  of  view  most  likely  to  discover  bone  spavin.  The  photo 
to  the  left  shows  this,  as  a  spavin  may  be  clearly  seen  at  the  inner 
base  of  the  right  hock. 


Photo  by  G.  A.  Tadman. 

The  illustration  to  the  right  shows  a  cocked  ankle,  while  the  other 
one  is  a  photograph  of  a  large  sidebone  which  may  be  seen  on  the  out- 
side of  the  right  leg  at  the  junction  of  the  pastern  and  foot. 


Prize  winning  Mammoth  jack,  JUMBOAK,  owned  by  W,  R.  Goodwin, 
Jr.,  Oakhurst  Stock  Farm,  Napersville,  Illinois.  In  size  of  bone  and 
general  form  this  jack  shows  the  characteristics  which  are  most  sought 
in  this  breed.  First  prize  at  Illinois  State  Fair,  1900  ;  height,  15.3  ; 
weight,  1,100  Ibs.  at  three  years  old.  Sold  for  $1,000. 


STBUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  27 

the  cannon  it  should  form  an  angle  of  about  135  degrees. 
When  more  upright  than  this,  they  will  cause  bone  diseases, 
such  as  sidebones  and  ringbones,  as  the  concussion  is  very 
severe  in  such  instances.  Moreover,  it  detracts  greatly  from 
the  utility  of  the  light  horse,  especially  those  intended  for 
the  saddle,  as  the  step  is  short  and  stilted,  and  this  is  very 
disagreeable  to  the  rider.  On  the  other  hand,  sometimes  the 
pasterns  of  light  horses,  and  of  thoroughbred  horses  es- 
pecially, are  too  long  and  slanting,  which  weakens  them 
and  ultimately  ends  in  the  snapping  of  the  suspensory  liga- 
ment, resulting  in  the  horse  "breaking  down." 

41.  Feet — Dense,  Waxy,  Large.     The  foot  should  re- 
ceive careful  attention  as  it  has  an  important  part  to  play 
in  the  work  of  the  horse,  and  it  is  subject  to  many  defects 
and  various  kinds  of  unsoundness.     It  should  be  of  firm 
texture,    good   size,    moderately   upright    and   thoroughly 
sound.     It  should  have  a  healthy  appearance  which  is  in- 
dicated by  an  oily  coat  of  natural  wax.     The  frog:  should 
bear  the  mark  of  natural  usage  as  a  buffer,  bein^  spongy 
and  touching  the  ground  at  each  step.     The  roof  or  sole 
of  the  hoof  should  be  distinctly  concave.    Flatness,  brittle- 
ness  and  contraction,  are  the  three  most  common  defects  in 
horses'  feet.    It  will  be  noticed  in  many  instances  that  the 
bar  of  the  foot  has  been  cut  away,  so  that  the  hoof  splits 
from  the  heel  towards  the  coronet.    This  is  due  to  the  black- 
smith 's  practice  of  cutting  away  the  bars  that  bind  the  foot 
together.    When  this  is  done  the  foot  begins  to  spread  and 
the  crack  ultimately  extends  as  far  as  possible. 

42.  Ribs — Well  Sprung,  Deep,  Close.    The  ribs  should 
be  well  sprung  from  the  spine  and  they  should  be  close  to 
each  other.     It  will  generally  be  found  that  horses  having 
well  sprung  ribs  always  make  a  better  appearance  than 
those  that  are  flat  ribbed;  and,  in  addition,  they  will  be 
found  to  be  easier  keepers.     It  should  be  noted  that  the 


28  JUDGING  LIGHT  HORSES 

round  ribbed  horse  always  has  the  appearance  of  being  in- 
ordinately long  in  the  legs.  This  deception  is  due  to  the 
roundness  of  the  body.  It  can  easily  be  seen  that  from  a 
side  view  the  flat  ribbed  horse  presents  a  body  of  deeper 
appearance  and  seemingly  has  shorter  legs  than  the  horse 
that  is  rounder  ribbed. 

43.  Back — Strong,  Short,  Muscled.     In  its  proportion 
the  body  should  be  short  above  and  long  underneath.    This 
not  only  adds  to  its  strength,  but  it  gives  the  legs  free  play 
and  insures  a  balanced  stride.    The  horse  of  this  conforma- 
tion under  the  saddle  will  unite  himself  more  quickly  and 
better,  while  the  same  horse  on  the  line,  or  in  harness  will 
have  a  freer  and  more  balanced  stride.    It  is  the  opinion  of 
many  that  the  roach  back  is  an  evidence  of  strength.     It  is 
the  most  undesirable  feature  in  a  horse  for  the  saddle,  and 
it  is  to  say  the  least,  an  eyesore  in  road  or  in  carriage 
horses. 

44.  Loin — Short,  Broad,  Muscled.  It  is  a  defect  of  many 
horses  to  be  light  and  narrow  at  the  juncture  of  the  body 
and  the  hind  quarter.    If  the  loin  is  long  or  slack,  that  is, 
if  the  distance  is  great  between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip 
bone,  the  horse  is  likely  to  be  weak  in  the  coupling  and 
deficient  in  action,  and  when  this  is  viewed  from  the  side, 
it  will  be  noticed  that  the  hind  foot  fails  to  reach  the  point 
where  the  front  foot  left  the  ground.    This  probably  is  due 
more  to  lack  of  muscle  over  the  loin  than  to  any  other 
defect. 

^.5.  Croup — Long,  Muscular.  The  part  included  in  the 
hind  quarters  should  be  critically  examined,  for,  as  it  has 
been  previously  explained,  it  is  in  this  region  that  the  pro- 
pelling power  resides.  The  haunch  or  croup  should  be  long 
and  on  account  of  the  improved  appearance  it  should  be 
comparatively  straight.  When  the  croup  is  long,  it  allows 
a  greater  play  of  the  main  muscles  that  are  located  in  this 
region.  It  will  be  noticed  in  nearly  all  fast  trotters  that 
the  croup  generally  has  this  characteristic.  Length  of 
muscle  here  as  elsewhere  contributes  to  speed. 


Arabian  stallion,  SHAHWAX,  bred  by  Ali  Pasha,  Sherif,  Egypt,  sold 
to  W.  S.  Blount,  in  1892,  and  taken  by  him  to  England  and  afterwards 
sold  to  present  owner,  J.  A.  P.  Ramsdell,  Newburg,  N.  Y.  The  photo- 
graph shows  this  horse  t?  fce  a  model  of  symmetry,  style  and  quality. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ARAB  HORSE. 

THOUGH  there  is  some  unreliable  sentiment  associated  with  the  Arab  horse, 
yet  there  is  not  a  vestige  of  doubt  but  that  they  are  of  superior  symmetry 
and  quality.  This  is  perfectly  summed  up  by  Sheik  Abd.-El.-Kader :  "The 
horse  of  pure  descent  is  distinguished  by  thinness  of  its  lips,  and  the  cartilage 
of  the  nose,  by  the  dilation  of  its  nostrils,  by  the  leanness  of  the  flesh  en- 
circling the  veins  of  the  head,  by  the  graceful  manner  the  neck  is  attached, 
by  the  softness  of  its  coat,  its  mane  and  the  hairs  of  its  tail,  by  its  breadth  of 
chest,  the  largeness  of  its  joints  and  leanness  of  its  extremities.  According 
to  the  traditions  of  our  ancestors,  the  thoroughbred  is  still  better  known  by 
its  moral  characteristics  than  its  physical  peculiarities."  Major  R.  D.  Upton 
in  "Newmarket  and  Arabia"  gives  the  characteristics  of  the  Arabian  horse  in 
the  following  statement  which  is  true  of  those  familiar  to  the  author:  "The 
Arabian  is  a  horse  of  the  highest  courage,  in  stature  about  14  hands  2  inches, 
a  horse  of  length,  power  and  substance,  combined  with  the  elastic  and  sinuous- 
like  movement  of  the  serpent.  He  is  a  very  perfect  animal ;  he  is  not  exag- 
gerated— in  some  parts  large,  meagre  and  diminished  in  others.  There  is  a 
balance  and  harmony  throughout  his  frame  not  seen  in  any  other  horse ;  the 
quintessence  of  all  good  qualities  in  a  compact  form." 

The  head  of  the  typical  Arabian  horse  is  exceedingly  straight  and  the  eye 
markedly  full  and  bright.  Perhaps  the  most  striking  feature  of  the  type  is  the 
round  and  extra  well  ribbed  barrel.  In  action  the  movement  of  the  legs  is 
very  peculiar,  being  very  strong  and  elastic.  Though  small,  the  form  is  ex- 
ceedingly smooth  and  symmetrical,  while  the  evidences  of  quality  are  strik- 
ingly shown. 


Photo   by    G.    A.    Tadman. 

Hackney  stallion,  ROYAL  DANEGELT  5785,  owned  by  Sir  Walter  Gilbey, 
Elsenham  Hall,  Essex.  Winner  of  championship  at  London  Hackney 
Show,  1898,  and  at  the  Manchester  show  of  the  Royal  Agricultural 
Society  of  England  in  1897. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  HACKNEY  HORSE. 

*pHE  HACKNEY  was  established  in  Great  Britain  as  a  breed  to  meet  the 
requirements  for  a  horse  of  extreme  smoothness,  with  gracefully  curved 
outlines,  having  the  action  necessary  to  show  these  to  the  best  advantage. 
The  head  is  light,  neck  muscular  and  curved  but  free  from  heaviness ; 
shoulders  smooth  and  laid  well  back ;  body  circular,  compact,  short ;  hips 
smooth  ;  quarters  plump  with  muscle,  legs  short  with  tendons  clearly  defined. 
Their  action  is  noted  for  its  straightness  and  height,  and  the  regularity  of 
knee  and  hock  movement.  There  is  a  variation  in  the  types  of  the  breed,  some 
showing  more  upstanding  with  abundance  of  quality  and  straighter  lines, 
while  others  are  shorter  limbed,  fuller  made  and  especially  strong  in  action 
from  a  carriage  standpoint.  The  secretary  of  the  Hackney  Horse  Association 
of  Great  Britain  has  summed  up  the  general  description  of  the  Hackney, 
which,  as  he  says,  fitted  old  style  and  new  ideal,  in  the  following:  "A  power- 
fully built,  short  legged,  big,  broad  horse,  with  an  intelligent  head,  neat  neck, 
strong,  level  back,  powerful  lines  and  as  perfect  shoulders  as  can  be  pro- 
duced; good  feet,  flat  boned  legs,  and  height  of  from  15.2  hands  to  15.3^. 
In  addition  to  showing  a  type  required  for  a  carriage  horse,  the  hackney  must 
possess  as  a  necessary  essential  true  carriage  or  coach  action. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  29 

46.  Thighs — Muscular,  Deep.    The  thigh  should  be  full 
and  plump  with  muscle  which  should  also  extend  as  far 
down  towards  the  hocks  as  possible.    Some  horses  have  this 
feature  so  strongly  developed  that  the  muscle  continues  to 
the  hock  and  gives  the  latter  a  thicker  appearance.     The 
thigh  should  be  long,  making  the  hocks  low,  as  this  con- 
tributes to  a  long  stride. 

47.  Quarters — Heavily  Muscled.    The  quarters  viewed 
from  behind  should  show  a  heavy  mass  of  muscle  between 
the  legs.    Perhaps  there  is  not  another  part  of  the  muscular 
system  that  shows  a  greater  variation  in  development  in  dif- 
ferent horses  than  the  quarters,  for  while  some  will  be  cat- 
hammed  there  are  others  surprisingly  full  in  this  part,  with 
deep,  hard  muscle. 

48.  Hind  Legs.     The  set  of  the  hind  legs  has  a  direct 
bearing  on  their  liability  to  diseases.    A  leg  that  is  bent  too 
far  forward  is  likely  to  develop  a  curb,  while  one  that  is  too 
straight  is  more  subject  to  fullness  in  the  hock  region,  pre- 
disposing it  to  either  thoroughpin  or  bog  spavin.    In  look- 
ing from  the  side  at  a  leg  that  has  correct  conformation,  a 
plumb  line  from  the  center  of  the  hip  joint  should  equally 
divide  the  gaskin  and  the  foot.  Dropping  a  plumb  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  it  should  run  parallel  with  the 
line  of  the  cannon.     From  behind,  the  same  line  should 
equally  divide  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  fpot. 

49.  Hocks— Wide,  Straight,  Clean.    The  hocks  should 
be  clean  and  broad  and  the  point  should  be  prominent  as 
the  leverage  of  the  most  powerful  muscles  attached  here 
depend  to  a  great  extent  upon  this.     There  should  be  no 
gumminess  about  the  hocks ;  the  web  should  be  especially 
clean  and  free  from  all  fleshiness  or  puffs  of  any  kind.   In 
running  the  hand  over  the  hock,  all  the  depressions  that  are 
characteristic  of  the  sound  hock  should  be  easily  felt  and 
the  bone  should  feel  firm  without  the  least  indication  of  un- 


30  JUDGING    LIGHT    HORSES 

soundness  of  any  part.  Too  much  attention  can  hardly 
be  given  to  this  joint  as  it  is  one  of  the  most  important  in 
the  whole  frame. 

50.  Hind  Cannons — Wide,  Short,  Clean.  The  hind  can- 
nons should  be  comparatively  short  as  such  a  conformation 
gives  the  hind  leg  a  longer  stride  while  at  the  same  time 
allowing  the  feet  to  keep  under  the  body  more.    They  should 
also  be  wide  for  that  gives  better  attachment  to  the  tendons 
and  especially  if  the  width  continue  just  below  the  hock  it 
materially  strengthens  that  part.    When  the  support  for  the 
tones  of  the  hock  is  slight  and  narrow  at  the  top  of  the 
cannon  there  is  greater  susceptibility  to  curbs  on  account 
of  the  weakness  of  that  region.    The  fetlock  joint  should  be 
of  normal  size  with  good  width  and  particularly  free  from 
any  puffiness  indicating  windgalls, 

51.  Hind  Pasterns— Sloping,  Strong.   The  slope  of  the 
hind  pasterns  is  not  of  such  importance  as  that  of  the  front 
pastern  for  the  reason  that  it  is  seldom  that  this  part  will  be 
found  too  straight  in  light  horses.    There  is  less  concussion 
for  the  hind  foot  to  stand,  consequently  there  is  less  need 
for  the  pastern  to  be  very  sloping.     The  pasterns  should  be 
of  medium  size  and  length  so  that  they  may  be  strong. 
Freedom  from  thick,  coarse  skin  and  hair  is  desirable  for  in 
the  instance  of  such  there  is  less  susceptibility  to  scratches. 

52.  Hind  Feet— Dense,  Rounded.   The  hind  feet  should 
have  the  characteristics  that  have  been  described  in  the 
reference  to  the  desirable  points  of  the  fore  feet.     It  may 
be  noted  in  addition  that  the  hind  feet  are  more  inclined  to 
become  narrow  in  front  and  not  have  the  nicely  rounded 
surface  that  is  desirable  in  a  good  foot.     The  sides  of  the 
foot   viewed   from   in    front   very   often    appear   to   have 
shrunken  some,  making  a  ridge  down  the  center  of  the  foot 
from  the  hoof  head  to  the  toe  and  leaving  the  sides  flat. 
Narrowness   at   the   hoof   head   usually   accompanies   this. 
The  foot  should  be  dense  in  structure,  medium  in  size,  with 
strong,  wide  heel  and  full  front. 


Thoroughbred    stallion,    IMP.    ORMONDE,    owned    by    W.    O'B.    Mac- 
donough,  Menlo  Park,  Cal.     A  Derby  winner  sired  by  Bend  Or. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   THOROUGHBRED   HORSE. 

•  T  IS  of  much  assistance  in  understanding  the  type  of  the  thoroughbred  to 

•  remember  that  they  are  the  oldest  of  the  breeds  of  horses  and  that  they 
have  been  bred  for  many  years  for  a  leading  purpose  and  this  has  generally 
been   running   speed.      To    secure   this   there   had   to   be   associated   with   the 
mechanism  that  produces  it,  unusual  quality  of  structure,   stamina  and  am- 
bition.    The  running  record  for  a  mile  is  held  by  Salvator,   the   time  being 
1.35%  on  a  straight  track.     The  common  colors  among  the  representatives  of 
this  breed  are  brown,   bay  and  chestnut.      The  distinguishing  features  are  u 
refined  appearance,  especially  clearly  defined  lineaments,  with  length  of  neck, 
deep  chest,  short  upper  line,  Ions  under  line,  somewhat  straight  croup,  mus- 
cular thighs,  neat  pasterns,  dense  bone,  firm  muscle  and  active  temperament. 
An  inclination  to  ranginess  in  type  is  required,  with  a  racy  apearance,  usu- 
ally resulting  in  a  horse  standing  16  hands.     Extreme  breeding  for  the  lead- 
ing characteristics   mentioned   makes   it   necessary   to   discountenance   in    the 
show   ring  light   bodies   and   a   general   appearance   which   has   given   rise   to 
the  term  "weedy,"  which  is  also  associated  with  lengthy  pasterns  and  long 
legs.     Being  highly  sensitive  in  organization  they  frequently  reflect  an  erratic 
temperament.     Their  purpose  being  principally  for  racing,  high  quality  with 
endurance   and   spirit   are   cardinal   qualities,    and   it   is   these   same   features 
which  have  made  them  useful  in  the  production  of  strong  drivers  and  stylish 
carriage  and  saddle  horses. 


Photo  by  Schreiber. 

Photograph    of    the    American    standard    bred    trotter,    GEO.    WILKES, 
2  :22  ;   founder  of  the  great  Wilkes  family  of  standard  bred  trotters. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    STANDARD   BRED    HORSE. 

THE  CHIEF  characteristics  of  the  American  standard  bred  horse  is  speed 
at  the  trotting  and  the  pacing  gaits  ;  the  world's  trotting  record  for  one 
mile  being  held  by  The  Abbott,  the  time  being  2:03 14,  while  the  world's 
pacing  record  for  the  same  distance  is  held  by  Star  Pointer,  the  time  being 
IroO1/^.  The  type  which  should  be  encouraged  in  the  show  ring  is  that 
which  conduces  towards  this  end,  while  at  the  same  time  showing  the  char- 
acteristics required  for  endurance,  ambition  and  the  essential  features  of  a 
road  horse.  This  means  the  possession  of  general  features  represented  by 
an  intelligent  head  and  extremely  light  neck,  low,  deep  chest,  oblique  shoul- 
der, long,  muscular  forearm,  strong  knees,  short  cannons,  slim,  sloping  pas- 
tern, and  feet  of  good  wearing  quality,  with  round  body  rising  slightly  over 
the  loin  ;  neat,  long  croup  ;  thighs  full  with  low  hocks  that  are  strongly  con- 
structed and  clearly  defined.  Such  deficiencies  as  are  due  to  undersize,  lack 
of  style  and  substance  should  be  points  for  underscoring  in  the  show  ring. 
In  this  connection,  it  is  of  importance  to  understand  the  difference  that  may 
exist  in  representatives  of  this  breed  when  they  are  undergoing  the  strenuous 
work  of  campaigning  or  when  they  are  retained  only  for  show  and  stud  pur- 
poses. As  many  carriage  horses  have  their  origin  in  this  breed,  as  well  as 
most  of  the  roadsters  and  trotters,  emphasis  should  be  given  to  the  qualities 
which  mean  endurance,  ambition  and  high  finish. 

It  sometimes  occurs  that  both  pacing  and  trotting  action  compete  in  the 
show  ring  in  a  class  for  roadsters  or  standard  breds.  Both  these  gaits  must 
l)e  recognized  and  the  preference  given  to  the  one  that  shows  the  most  purity 
and  is  the  best  in  every  particular  of  its  kind.  The  distinction  must  be 
made  between  the  high  knee  and  hock  action  of  the  carriage  horse  and  the 
more  reaching  and  easier  folding  action  of  the  roadster  or  trotter.  See 
standard,  page  f>8. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  31 

""  SCALE   OF   POINTS    FOB   LIGHT   HORSES GELDING.  %  o 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  £(/) 

Form,    symmetrical,    smooth,   stylish 4 

Quality,  bone  clean,  firm  and  indicating  sufficient  sub- 
stance; tendons  defined;  hair  and  3kin  fine 4 

Temperament,  active,  kind  disposition 4 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Head,  lean,  straight „ 1 

Muzzle,  fine,  nostrils  large;  lips  thin,  even;  teeth  sound  1 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear,  large 1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium,  size,  pointed;  well  carried,  and  not  far 

apart    „ . .  l 

Neck,  muscled;    crest,   high;    throatlatch,   fine;    wind- 
pipe, large _. 1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulders,  long,  smooth  with  muscle,  oblique,  extend- 
ing into  back 2 

Arms,  short,  thrown  forward 1 

Fore  arms,  muscled,  long,  wide 2 

Knees,  clean,  wide,  straight,  deep,  strongly  supported.  2 

Cannons,  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,   wide,    straight 1 

Pasterns,  strong,  angle  with  ground  45  degrees 3 

Feet,  medium,  even  size;   straight;   horn  dense;   frog 

large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole  concave;  heel  wide.  6 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the 
knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side,  a 
perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the 
elbow  joint  should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  knee 

and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof 4 

BODY: 

Withers,  muscled  and  well  finished  at  top 1 

Chest,  deep,  low,  large  girth 2 

Ribs,   long,   sprung,   close 2 

Back,    straight,    short,   broad,   muscled 2 

Loin,   wide,    short,   thick 2 

Underline,  long;  flank  let  down 1 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide,  level 2 

Croup,  long,  wide,  muscular 2 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

Thighs,  long,  muscular,  spread,  open  angled 2 

Quarters,    heavily   muscled,    deep 

Gaskin  or  Lower  Thighs,  long,  wide,  muscular 2 

Hocks,  clearly  defined,  wide,  straight 5 

Gannons,  short,  wide;  sinews,  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,    wide,    straight 1 

Pasterns,    strong,    sloping 2 


32  JUDGING    HEAVY    HORSES 

Feet,  medium,  even  size;  straight;  horn  dense,  frog 
large,  elastic;  bars  strong;  sole,  concave;  heel,  wide, 
high  4 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock,  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From 
the  side,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint 
should  fall  upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide 
the  gaskin  in  the  middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line 
from  the  point  of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel 

with  the  line  of  the  cannon 4 

ACTION: 

Walk,   elastic,   quick,   balanced 5 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular,  high 15 

Total 100 

III.      JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES. 

53,  Consideration  of  Condition.     In  examining  draft 
horses  it  is  well  to  remember  that  defects  that  are  often 
apparent  to  the  eye  in  the  instance  of  light  horses,  require 
more  careful  observation  to  detect  them  in  heavy  horses. 
The  defects  are  usually  harder  to  see  owing  to  the  degree 
to  which  the  horses  may  be  pampered.  Draft  horses  may  be 
fed  to  such  a  high  condition  and  in  this  way  so  "veneered" 
that  it  becomes  a  very  hard  matter  to  detect  the  struc- 
tural defects.     A  horse  in  lean  serviceable  condition  will 
often  show  many  defects  especially  in  the  body  that  a 
thick    covering    of    fat    would    hide.      In    judging    draft 
horses  it  is  necessary  to  observe  the  greatest  precaution 
so  as  not  to  mistake  such  padding  with  fat  for  dvelopment 
of  muscle. 

/.     General  Examination. 

As  in  the  light  horse  the  most  important  matters  to 
notice  in  the  general  examination  are  the  form,  quality 
and  action  of  the  horse  under  inspection. 

54.  Form — Massive,  Broad,  Deep.     In  form  the  draft 
horse  should  be  broad,  square,  close  to  the  ground  and 
well  proportioned.    It  is  necessary  to  remember  that  power 
rather  than  speed  should  be  the  outcome  of  the  effort  of 
a  draft  horse.     It  is  evident  that  the  size  of  the  muscle 
has  more  to  do  with  power,  while  the  length  of  the  muscle 


French  Coach  Stallion,  PALADIN  1968,  by  Perfection.Owned  by  Dunnam, 
Fletcher  &  Coleman,   Wayne,   111. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  'A  HE  FRUNCH  COACH  HORSE 

I  ARGELY  through  the  encouragement  and  direction  of  the  French  government 
the  French  coach  horse  has  been  moulded  into  a  type  that  has  as  its  leading 
characteristic  extreme  smoothness,  symmetry,  a  grace  in  movement  with  strong 
action  approaching  closely  to  that  required  for  the  carriage  horse.  The  head 
should  be  intelligent  looking,  the  neck  clearly  outlined  and  gracefully  carried,  the 
body  snugly  ribbed  and  quarters  deep  and  muscular.  To  be  striking  in  appearance, 
upstanding  and  high  headed  are  features  which  have  a  paramount  value  in  this 
type,  and  in  addition  there  should  be  every  evidence  of  quality  in  all  structures. 
The  common  colors  are  bay,  brown  and  black,  and  usually  these  are  solid  and  not 
broken.  Uniformity  is  desirable  in  any  breed,  so  that  it  is  necessary  for  the  judge 
to  adopt  a  certain  type  as  that  which  he  prefers,  and  then  be  consistent  in  the 
awards  which  follow.  The  highest  pattern  of  a  coach  horse  without  coarseness  or 
lack  of  action  should  be  the  standard  carried  in  mind.  When  at  rest  it  may  be 
said  that  for  true  symmetry,  fullness  and  graceful  curves  the  highest  type  of  the 
French  coach  horse  is  almost  an  idealistic  pattern  of  what  is  required  of  ?  repre- 
sentative of  this  class. 


German  coach  stallion  imported  SOCRATES,  owned  by  Mr.  John  Par- 
rott,  San  Francisco,  California.  At  the  San  Francisco  Horse  Show 
this  stallion  was  first  prize  winner  in  the  stallion  class  for  coachers. 

A  Cleveland  Bay  coach  stallion,  first  prize  winner  at  the  Royal 
Agricultural  Society  Show  in  1899. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    GERMAN    COACH   HORSE. 

THE  GERMAN  coach  horse  is  representative  of  the  larger  breeds  coming 
within  the  coach  class.  The  type  of  the  best  carries  with  it  the  smooth- 
ness and  the  full  development  of  muscular  regions  which  give  powerful  move- 
ment and  at  the  same  time  fullness  of  form.  Substance,  meaning  thereby  the 
possession  of  a  strong  frame,  shown  especially  in  the  bone  below  the  knee, 
is  one  of  the  features  which  has  a  pre-eminent  place  in  the  qualities  desired 
by  the  adherents  of  the  breed.  Soundness  of  joints  and  cleanness  of  limb 
are  qualities  which  must  be  secured  in  horses  suitable  for  the  purpose  of 
these,  and  the  show  ring  inspection  should  be  directed  clearly  towards  dis- 
countenancing undue  roughness  of  structure,  looseness  of  joints.  The  colors 
are  bay,  brown  and  black,  and  these  are  rarely  broken  by  splashes  or  other 
striking  markings. 

DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   CLEVELAND   BAY  HORSE. 

THIS  BREED,  taking  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  England,  has  for 
its  charactertistic  color  different  shades  of  bay  with  black  points.  Being 
bred  for  the  heaviest  carriage  work,  a  representative  of  this  breed  should 
stand  sixteen  hands  high,  somewhat  large  in  size,  and  with  more  evidence  of 
power  than  most  other  breeds  of  light  horses.  While  possessing  substance 
and  symmetry,  there  should  not  be  any  deficiencies  in  evidence  such  as  rough 
joints,  coarse  bone  and  lack  of  action  for  carriage  purposes.  Their  size, 
power  and  evenness  of  disposition  adapt  them  for  general  work  on  light  farms 
or  for  heavy  carriage  work  in  the  cities.  As  the  sphere  of  this  breed  has  not 
demanded  the  action  called  for  in  the  lighter  coach  breeds,  true  coach  action 
has  not  been  commonly  associated  with  its  members,  but,  more  or  less,  the 
critical  judge  should  look  for  it  in  the  show  ring  as  in  all  coach  classes. 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  33 

is  indicative  principally  of  speed.  There  is  a  combination 
of  power  and  speed  which  is  desirable  to  secure  in  the 
draft  horse  but  as  in  all  things  opposed  to  each  other  it 
is  impossible  to  secure  the  highest  development  of  both 
in  the  same  individual.  It  has  been  stated  by  a  writer 
on  this  subject*  that  in  the  instance  of  animals  of  short 
bones,  slight  angularity  and  short  muscles,  the  conditions 
are  most  favorable  for  drawing  heavy  loads,  and  animals 
with  long  bones,  long  muscles  and  slightly  angular  joints 
are  especially  adapted  for  speed. 

55.  Advantage  of  Weight.  In  considering  the  form, 
weight  should  be  given  a  high  valuation,  for  a  horse  that 
does  not  weigh  at  least  1,500  pounds  should  not  be  con- 
sidered a  draft  horse.  In  addition,  this  weight  must  be ' 
the  outcome  of  strong  bone,  heavy  muscles  and  idi'ge  pro- 
portions and  not  have  its  origin  in  excessive  fatness.  As 
to  the  importance  of  weight  it  may  be  illustrated  best  by 
citing  what  is  said  to  be  the  first  experience  that  inventors 
had  with  the  locomotive.  When  this  was  being  perfected 
before  its  introduction  as  a  means  of  transportation,  it 
is  stated  that  a  small  model  of  a  locomotive  with  thejiec- 
essary  track  arrangement  was  used  by  those  desiring  to 
bring  it  into  practical  use.  It  was  found  in  the  model 
that  the  wheels  would  not  adhere  to  the  track  but  would 
spin  around  and  waste  the  power.  Considerable  study  was 
given  to  the  best  means  of  overcoming  this  difficulty.  It 
was  thought  that  the  wheels  should  have  cogs  and  the 
track  furnished  in  the  same  way  but  a  better  plan  was 
happened  upon  by  accident.  The  inventor  having  a  small 
load  in  form  of  bags  to  take  over  the  track,  instead  of 
putting  it  in  the  car  of  the  model  train  threw  them  across 
the  locomotive  and  when  steam  was  generated  the  train 
started  without  any  of  the  difficulties  that  had  been  before 
observed.  He  found  through  this  that  the  locomotive  to 
exert  its  power  to  the  best  advantage  should  have  a  pro- 
portionate weight  and  it  ultimately  assisted  in  the  per- 

*  Smith,   Physiology  of  Domestic  Animals,  page   756. 


34  JUDGING    HEAVY    HORSES 

fection  of  the  locomotive.  The  same  principle  attached  it- 
self to  the  draft  horse  as  a  motor.  It  has  been  further 
illustrated  in  this  way — a  driver  with  a  rather  light  horse 
was  trying  to  take  a  cartload  of  grain  up  a  hill,  the  horse 
tried  several  times  to  accomplish  it  but  would  only  get 
partly  up  the  hill  when  the  load  would  draw  him  back. 
After  studying  the  matter  the  driver  took  some  bags  out 
of  the  cart  and  put  them  on  the  horse  and  accomplished  his 
object.  The  same  principle  is  applied  as  in  the  instance  of 
the  locomotive.  He  had  added  just  so  much  to  the  weight 
of  the  horse  and  this  enabled  him  to  overcome  in  a  degree 
the  weight  of  the  load.  The  factor  of  weight  is  not  only 
of  value  in  matter  of  work  but  this  is  also  observable 
.as  an  influence  in  the  general  market. 

56.  Market  Value  of  Weight.    Arranging  the  sales  re- 
ported by  a  leading  firm  of  Chicago,  during  1893,  accord- 
ing to  the  weight  of  the  horses  sold,  it  will  be  seen  that 
the  variation  in  price  is  in  accordance  with  the  weight  of 
the  horse,  as  follows : 

Average  Average 

Weight.  Price. 

1400  $155.87 

1450  159.15 

1500  169.15 

1550  176.56 

1600  176.62 

1650  208.64 

1700  212.89 

1750  236.14 

1800  258.33 

It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  constant  increase  in  the 
prices  from  the  lighter  to  the  heavier  weight  and  this 
factor  of  weight  seems  to  be  so  marked  as  to  dominate  all 
other  merits.  The  weight  increasing  from  1,400  to  1,800 
pounds  advanced  the  price  about  $100,  which  means  that 
the  added  weight  within  this  range  was  worth,  about  25 
cents  per  pound  on  the  general  market. 

57.  Quality  with  Substance  Necessary  for  Durability. 
Of  all  desirable  features  to  be  sought  in  a  draft  horse  that 
of  strong,  clean  and  firm  bone  is  one  of  the  most  important. 


JLJ* 


Imported  Trakehner  coach  stallion  VIRGIL.  Black  horse  with  brown 
muzzle,  16  hands  high.  Foaled  1887.  Weight  1,275  pounds.  Bred  by 
W.  Gerlach,  Walterkehmen,  Prussia.  Imported  by  Jacob  Heyi,  of  Mil- 
waukee, Wisconsin,  in  1890. 

Russian  Orloff  stallion  WZMAKH,  record  2:26*4.  Gray  horse,  16 
hands  high.  Foaled  1887.  Bred  by  S.  DeBeauvais,  Rogojkinow,  Gouv- 
ernement  Pensa,  District  of  Mokshansk,  Russia.  Imported  by  Jacob 
Heyl,  of  Milwaukee,  Wisconsin,  1892. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  TRAKEHNER  COACH  HORSE. 

THIS  BREED  of  coach  horses,  developed  under  the  patronage  of  the  Prus- 
sian government,  includes  among  its  representatives  horses  that  for  gen- 
eral use  exhibit  a  high  standard  of  excellence.  They  possess  the  substance 
required  in  a  weight  pulling  coach  horse  and  with  it  much  of  the  quality  which 
reflects  a  high  order  of  breeding.  The  outline  of  the  best  type  illustrates  a 
high  order  of  perfection  for  a  coach  horse  ;  while  the  advantage  of  large  size 
with  good  bone  adds  greatly  to  their  weight  pulling  qualities.  In  color  these 
horses  are  with  rare  exception  bright  bays  with  few  if  any  markings.  Though 
typical  coach  action  has  not  been  made  a  feature  of  their  breeding,  as  in  the 
instance  of  some  of  the  other  breeds  of  coach  horses,  yet  it  is  a  characteristic 
which  should  be  in  evidence  in  any  show  ring  containing  a  display  of  this  class. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ORLOFF  TROTTER. 

THE  ORLOFF  trotter,  being  the  national  horse  of  Russia,  has  been  de- 
signed largely  by  government  direction  to  meet  the  many  demands  which 
are  made  upon  a  horse  of  general  utility.  They  should  be  expected  to  show 
the  quality  which  would  be  required  in  any  light  horse  frequently  subjected  to 
severe  tests  of  endurance  and  strength  of  structure.  The  type  is  one  smoothly 
moulded  with  muscle,  strong  in  all  its  parts  and  yet  not  unduly  coarse,  while 
at  the  same  time  not  being  so  finely  constructed  as  to  detract  any  from  its 
general  strength.  Being  vigorous,  they  possess  an  abundance  of  ambition,  and 
associated  with  this  there  is  a  compactness  and  general  unity  of  structure 
which  makes  them  good  wearers  under  work.  It  is  not  expected  that  a  horse 
of  this  type  would  have  the  ability  to  trot  as  fast  as  one  showing  a  higher 
and  more  special  construction,  but  it  is  proper  to  look  for  that  type  which 
would  be  adapted  for  covering  long  distances  with  the  least  fatigue. 


Champion  Shetland  pony  PRINCE  OF  WALES,  at  nine  years  of  age, 
height  39  inches.  This  stallian  lias  won  a  championship  at  every  show 
exhibited  since  his  two-year-old  form,  having  won  over  12  consecutive 
championship  prizes.  Owned  by  Chas.  E.  Bunn,  Peoria,  Illinois.  See 
Shetland  Standard  page  59. 

A  typical  Welsh  pony. 

STANDARD    FOR    PONY. 

BEFORE  the  establishment  of  the  Hackney  Horse  Society  in  1883,  the 
dividing  line  between  the  horse  and  the  pony  in  England  was  vague  and 
undefined.  It  was  then  found  necessary  to  distinguish  clearly  between  horses 
and  ponies,  and  accordingly  all  animals  measuring  fourteen  hands  or  under 
were  designated  "ponies"  and  registered  in  a  separate  part  of  the  Stud  Book. 
This  record  of  height  with  other  particulars  as  to  breeding,  .etc.,  serves  to 
direct  breeders  in  their  choice  of  sires  and  dams.  The  standard  of  height 
established  by  the  Hackney  Horse  Society  was  accepted  and  officially  recog- 
nized by  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society 'in  iss:t  when  the  prize  list"  for  the 
Windsor  Show  contained  pony  classes  for  animals  not  exceeding  14  hands. 
The  altered  Polo  rule  which  iixes  the  limit  of  height  at  14  hands  2  inches  mav 
l>e  productive  of  some  little  confusion  ;  but  for  all  other  purposes  14  hands  is 
the  recognized  maximum  height  of  a  pony.  Prior  to  1883  small  horses  were 
called  indifferently  galloways,  hobbies,  cobs  or  ponies,  irrespective  o£  their 
height. — Ponies  Past  and  Present,  by  Sir  Walter  Gilbey,  Bart. 

DESCRIPTION   OF  WELSH  PONY. 

FOR  THE  information  of  those  interested  in  this  breed,  the  following  de- 
scriptions, furnished  to  the  Polo  Pony  Society  for  their  stud  book  (Vol.  V. ) 
by  the  local  committees,  may  be  quoted:'  "HEIGHT — Not  to  exceed  12.2  hands. 
COLOR — Bay  or  brown  preferred  ;  grey  or  black  allowable  ;  but  dun,  chestnut 
or  broken  color  considered  objectionable.  ACTION — Best  described  as  that  of 
the  hunter  ;  low  'dairy-cutting'  action  to  be  avoided.  The  pony  should  move 
quickly  and  actively,  stepping  out  well  from  the  shoulder,  at  the  same  time 
flexing  the  hocks  and  bringing  the  hind  legs  well  under  the  body  when  going. 
GENERAL  CHARACTER — The  pony  should  show  good  pony  character  and  evidence 
of  robust  constitution,  with  the  unmistakable  appearance  of  hardiness  peculiar 
to  mountain  ponies,  and  at  the  same  time  have  a  lively  appearance.  HEAD — 
Should  be  small,  well  chiseled  in  its  outline  and  well  set  on  ;  forehead  broad, 
tapering  toward  nose.  NOSTRILS — Large  and  expanding.  EYES — Bright,  mild, 
intelligent  and  prominent.  EARS — Neatly  set,  well  formed  and  small.  THROAT 
AND  JAWS — Fine,  showing  no  signs  of  coarseness  or  throatiness.  NECK — Of 
proportionate  length  ;  strong  but  not  too  heavy  with  a  moderate  crest  in  the 
case  of  the  stallion.  SHOULDERS — Good  shoulders  most  important;  should  be 
well  laid  back  arid  sloping,  but  not  too  fine  at  the  withers,  not  loaded  at  the 
points.  The  pony  should  have  a  good,  long  shoulder  blade.  BACK  AND  LOINS — 
Strong  and  well  covered  with  muscle.  HINDQUARTERS — Long,  and  tail  well 
carried,  as  much  like  the  Arab  as  possible,  springing  well  from  the  top  of 
the  back.  HOCKS — Well  let  down,  clean  cut,  with  plenty  of  bone  between  the 
joint  ;  they  should  not  be  'sickled'  or  'cow-hocked.'  FORELEGS — Well  placed  ; 
not  tied  in  any  way  at  the  elbows  ;  good  muscular  arm,  short  from  the  knee 
to  the  fetlock  joints;  flat,  hone;  pasterns  sloping  but  not  too  long;  feet,  well 
developed  and  open  at  the  heel  ;  hoof  sound  and  hard." — PO»!<-N  J'axt  and 
J'rrscnt,  Kir  Walter  Cilbry,  Part. 


GENERAL    EXAMINATION  35 

The  leg  below  the  cannon  should  be  flat,  the  bone  should 
feel  firm  and  the  tendons  should  stand  out  distinctly  from 
the  bone.  There  should  be  such  a  feeling  about  the  bone 
of  the  legs  as  to  warrant  the  assumption  that  it  is  of  a  fine, 
firm  texture.  If  you  will  compare  the  texture  of  a  piece  of 
hickory  wood  with  that  of  tamarac  or  larch,  which  differ 
markedly  in  their  relative  strength,  the  difference  which 
exists  in  the  bone  of  horses  will  be  made  clear.  Although 
a  horse  has  never  been  known  to  break  its  leg  in  this  region 
by  severe  exertion  yet  the  importance  of  strength  of  bone . 
in  these  parts  is  of  high  value,  not  simply  because  of  its 
wearing  quality  but  also  largely  for  what  it  indicates.  It 
will  be  found  that  in  the  instance  of  a  horse  that  has  what 
is  generally  known  as  flat,  clean  bone  with  hard  defined 
joints,  its  endurance  is  double  that  of  a  horse  showing  the 
opposite  quality.  In  those  breeds  which  have  hair  on 
their  legs  or  ''feather"  as  it  is  sometimes  called,  the  qual- 
ity of  the  hair  is  an  .  index  to  the  nature  of  the  bone. 
Coarse,  porous  bone,  and  coarse  skin  are  associated  and  the 
latter  gives  rise  to  coarse  hair;  while  on  the  other  hand 
fine,  silky  hair  is  accepted  as  an  indication  that  the  bone 
is  of  close  and  hard  texture.  The  mistake  sometimes  made 
of  considering  small  bone  a  characteristic  of  quality  should 
be  guarded  against  as  this  is  a  very  detrimental  feature  in 
a  draft  horse.  In  heavy  horses  the  important  considera- 
tion is  to  secure  as  close  a  combination  as  possible  of 
quality  with  substance  and  weight. 

58.  Action — Straight,  Regular.  The  common  working 
pace  of  the  draft  horse  is  the  walk  and  for  this  reason  it 
deserves  prominence.  In  its  sphere  the  draft  horse  is  only 
at  times  urged  beyond  a  walk  so  that  it  becomes  a  very 
important  attribute  of  this  horse  to  be  a  good  walker.  In 
criticising  the  walk  of  a  draft  horse,  the  action  should  be 
noted  from  three  points  of  view — before,  behind  and  from 
the  side.  In  approaching,  the  horse  should  carry  his  head 
high  and  the  stride  should  be  regular.  The  feet  should  be 
lifted  clear  of  the  ground  and  placed  down  evenly  as  if  in 


36  JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 

deliberation.  From  the  side  it  may  be  noted  if  the  hind 
and  fore  legs  work  in  unison.  Horses  with  short  bones 
and  long  underlines  present  the  best  view  from,  the  side 
while  in  action  hut  on  the  other  hand  those  with  long- 
backs  and  weak  loins  usually  drag  their  legs  in  a  slovenly 
way.  Viewed  from  behind  the  action  of  the  hock  should 
be  carefully  noted.  The  flexion  in  this  region  should  be 
free  and  straight.  It  is  a  common  weakness  of  the  hocks 
to  be  turned  outward  when  raised,  but  more  frequently 
the  hocks  are  bent  in  too  much  and  the  feet  thrown  out  of 
line.  As  a  rule  the  stride  should  not  be  too  long  but  well 
balanced  with  a  movement  quick  and  elastic. 

59.  Trotting  Action.     The  ability  to  trot  well  is  not 
generally  considered  a  valuable  attribute  for  a  draft  horse, 
as  it  is  claimed  that  to  walk  well  is  a  much  more  useful 
achievement.     Good  trotting  action,  however,  is  not  only 
valuable  in  itself  but  it  also  brings  with  it  many  other 
qualities  such  as  activity,  style,  balance  of  conformation 
and  other  features  that  are  desirable  in  any  class  of  horses. 
The  draft  horse  in  trotting  should  go  level,  straight  and 
regular,  for  any  deviation  from  these  qualities  are  usually 
evidences  of  unsoundness  or  the  absence  of  a  balanced  con- 
formation.   The  legs,  both  fore  and  hind,  should  flex  freely 
at  the  hocks  and  knees,  for  a  rigidness  of  movement  of 
these  is  indicative  of  defects  of  some  kind.    A  stilted  hock 
action  is  much  too  common  in  draft  horses  and  is  very 
often  due  to  the  fact  that  the  hock  is  not  properly  set  as 
may  be  observed  in  all  hind  legs  that  are  too  straight. 
Such  are  usually  lacking  in  reach  and  power. 

II.     Structural  Examination. 

60.  Head — Lean,  Medium  Size.     Coarseness  of  the  head 
is  a  prevalent  fault.     While  it  should  be  of  only  medium 
size  there  should  be  sufficient  breadth  between  the  eyes 
and  the  face  lines  should  be  clearly  defined  with  the  total 
length  of  the  head  proportionate  to  the  rest  of  the  body. 
It  should  be  well  set  on  the  neck  and  carried  gracefully. 


Photo  from  Horse  Show  Monthly. 

Saddle  stallion  MOXTE  CRISTO,  JR.,  owned  by  J.  T.  Crenshaw,   Scott 
Station,  Ky.     Winner  of  numerous  prizes  at  leading  horse  shows. 


Morgan  horse,  HILLSIDE,  bred  by  Morgan  Horse  Company,  Carpen- 
tersville,  111.  HILLSIDE  and  his  full  brother  sold  during  the  depressed 
times  of  the  horse  industry  for  $1,600.  He  was  first  at  the  Illinois  State 
Fair  in  1894,  1895,  and  also  first  prize  winner  at  the  Chicago  Horse 
Show  in  1894. 


Standard  bred  trotting1  stallion,  ALLERTON,  when  a  three-year-old  with 
a  record  of  2:12,  formerly  champion  trotting-  stallion,  and  within  recent 
years  the  leading-  sire  of  standard  trotters.  Sired  by  Jay  Bird  5060, 
and  owned  by  C.  W.  Williams,  Galesburg,  111. 


American  standard  bred  stallion  ALLERTON,  2:091/4.  Reproduced  from 
a  photograph  taken  when  ]  4  years  old.  A  comparison  of  this  with 
the  illustration  shown  above,  which  was  taken  when  three  years  old, 
indicates  the  development  which  takes  place  in  a  stallion  as  he  ad- 
vances in  years.  A  comparison  will  also  add  to  the  prestige  of  this 
horse,  for  it  shows  how  well  preserved  in  form  he  is,  without  any 
!>!(••. lislies,  after  having  passed  through  severe  campaigning. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  37 

The  nostrils  should  be  large  and  of  a  healthy  color.  An 
examination  of  the  mouth,  though  usually  made  to  esti- 
mate the  age,  should  include  inspection  for  the  most  fre- 
quent defects  in  this  region  which,  in  heavy  horses  are 
parrot  mouth  or  overshot  mouth  and  troubles  of  the  teeth. 
The  eye  should  be  bright,  full  and  mild  with  no  appearance 
of  film  to  interfere  with  the  vision.  In  looking  at  the  eye 
it  is  well  to  remember  that  the  natural  shape  of  the  pupil 
is  elliptical,  while  a  spherical  form  indicates  blindness  or 
impaired  vision.  Haziness  of  the  eye,  one  being  smaller 
than  the  other  or  a  wrinkled  eyelid  are  indications  of  oph- 
thalmia. 

61.  Neck — Strong,  Lengthy.    The  neck  should  have  the 
appearance  of  being  strong  and  massive  and  also  of  suffi- 
cient length  and  well  arched.     Undue  length    of    neck 
especially  in  draft  horses  is  so  rare  that  it  may  be  con- 
sidered unknown. 

62.  Shoulders — Sloping,  Muscular.    While  a  decidedly 
upright  shoulder  may  give  increased  power  in  the  shafts, 
it  must  be  remembered  that  it  may  be  in  an  extreme  posi- 
tion in  this  respect,  and  if  so  it  forces  the  step  to  be  short 
and  slow.     It  is  easy  to  see  that  a  moderately  oblique 
shoulder  favors  a  long,  quick  step  and  at  the  same  time  it 
detracts  but  little  from  the  power.    When  the  shoulder  is 
very  upright  the  concussion  upon  the  feet  is  increased  and 
hence  this  conformation  is  general!}^  associated  with  side- 
bones  and  ringbones.    Activity  and  elasticity  of  movement, 
especially  in  the  walk  is  a  desirable  feature  of  the  heavy 
horse  and  such  is  very  seldom  found  in  connection  with  an 
upright  shoulder. 

63.  Chest — Deep,  Full.    The  chest  should  be  deep  and 
comparatively  broad  giving  great  volume  and  lung  room. 
It  is  best  estimated  by  the  girth,  which  is  the  body's  cir- 
cumference behind  the  fore  legs.    Horses  that  are  slack  in 
that  part,  are  generally  of  weak  constitution  without  aver- 
age staying  power.    Exceptional  width  in  the  chest  usually 


38  JUDGING    HEAVY    HORSES 

results  in  rolling  and  pitching  in  action,  but  if  the  shoulder 
blades  fit  snug  to  the  body  this  is  not  generally  noticeable. 

64.  Arms — Sloping.    The  humerus  or  bone  that  forms 
the  arm  should  be  short  and  sloping  so  as  to  bring  the  fore 
legs  properly  under  the  body.     In  addition  it  should  be 
well  covered  with  muscle. 

65.  Fore  Legs — Wide,  Defined,  Fore  Arm  Large.   The 

fore  arm  should  be  large  and  its  prominence  should  be  due 
to  a  large  bunch  of  muscle  which  gives  the  horse  complete 
control  of  his  legs.  It  is  an  especially  valuable  feature  to 
notice  in  a  draft  horse  for  the  reason  that  it  is  not  as 
easily  padded  with  fat  as  the  rest  of  the  body. 

66.  Knees — Broad,  Defined,    A  broad,  clean  knee  is  im- 
portant and  there  should  not  be  the  least  shrinkage  in  the 
breadth  below  it.    The  extremities  should  be  lean  and  the 
tendons  should  stand  out  prominently  from  the  rest  of  the 
leg.    In  Clydesdales  and  Shires  there  should  be  a  fringe  of 
fine,  silky  hair  starting  from  behind  the  knee  and  running 
to  the  fetlock  and  this  should  spring  from  the  edge  of  the 
leg.     It  is  well  to  bear  in  mind  that  this  "feather"  very 
often  gives  one  a  false  impression  of  the  width  of  the  leg 
below  the  knee.    Horses  that  are  coarse  about  the  fetlocks 
with  matted,  wiry  hair  in  this  region  are  as  a  rule  more 
subject  to  the  skin  diseases  characteristic  of  these  regions. 

67.  Fetlocks— Clean,  Wide.  This  joint  should  be  clearly 
defined  without  any  fullness,  due  to  windgalls.   In  addition 
it  should  be  wide  so  as  to  give  favorable  attachment  to  the 
strong  tendons  that  pass  this  point. 

68.  Pasterns— Sloping,  Springy.     The  pastern  of  the 
draft  horse  should  be  medium  in  length  and  it  should  be 
critically  examined  especially  in  regard  to  its  slope,  for 
this  has  much  to  do  with  the  durability  of  the  horse 's  feet 
and  also  has  an  effect  on  the  animal's  action.    A  glance  at 
the  skeleton  in  this  region  will  show  that  there  are  four 


A  yearling  Hackney  filly,  winner  of  numerous  prizes  in  the  leading 
British  show  rings. 

A  thoroughbred  yearling,  DISGUISE  II,  owned  by  James  R.  Keene. 
This  American  bred  horse  finished  third  in  the  Derby,  and  afterwards 
beat  the  winner  of  the  race,  the  Prince  of  Wales'  Diamond  Jubilee. 


A  group  of  French  Coach  yearling  fillies  at  Oaklawn  Stock  Farm, 
the  property  of  Messrs.  Dunham,  Fletcher  &  Coleman,  Wayne,  111. 
These  fillies  were  sired  by  Perfection  and  they  show  the  form  and 
quality  desired  in  coach  fillies  of  this  age. 


NANCY  HANKS  2.04  and  foal  by  ARION  2:07%.     This  foal  shows  the     [ 
qualities  desired  in  a  trotting  breed  weanling   while   the   mare  in  form     > 
illustrates  a  very   desirable   type  of  standard  bred   brood  mare. 


A    pasture    scene    at    Gregory    Farm,    White    Hall,    111. 


The  illustration  on  the  right  hand  shows  a  deficient  fore  leg  for  a 
draft  horse,  as  it  lacks  muscle,  with  straight,  coarse  pastern  and  shelly 
feet.  The  shoulder  is  also  too  straight  and  the  legs  very  deficient  in 
quality,  as  the  hair  is  coarse  and  wiry,  which  may  be  noted  by  com- 
parison with  the  one  on  the  left.  The  latter  shows  good  feet,  sloping 
pasterns,  strongly  supported  knee,  rather  weak  fore  arm,  and  mod- 
erately sloping  shoulder. 


Clydesdale  gelding  SENSATION.  In  1896  this  horse  was  champion 
gelding  of  Scotland  and  then  weighed  2184  pounds  when  shown  by  Mr. 
William  Clark  of  Netherlea,  Scotland,  who  paid  $600  for  him.  After 
working  during  the  intervening  time  on  the  streets  of  Liverpoo1,  he  was 
shown  at  Chicago  at  the  International  Exposition  in  December,  1900, 
where  he  won  a  $100  special  for  the  best  aged  gelding  in  harness. 
Photo  taken  December,  1900.  This  horse  was  bred  by  Mr.  John  Craw- 
ford, of  Scotland  and  he  was  sired  by  the  Darnley  horse  Gartsherrie 
(2800). 


The  imported  English  Shire  stallion  SOUTHILL  CASTLE.  First  in 
aged  class  at  International  Exposition  in  1911,  shown  by  Truman 
Bros.,  Bushnell,  111. 


A   prize   winning   Belgian    stallion,    imported   and   shown   by   Crouch 
&   Son,  La  Fayette,   Ind. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  39 

small  bones  below  the  fetlock  joint.  The  first  one  below 
this  joint  is  the  one  that  forms  the  pastern  and  below  this 
there  are  two  others  continuing  the  slope  of  the  pastern ; 
vrhile  the  fourth  is  located  at  the  juncture  of  the  two  just 
mentioned.  It  is  evident  that  it  is  desirable  for  the  pastern 
bone  to  slope  at  least  forty-five  degrees,  for  if  it  is 
straighter  than  this,  the  concussion  given  to  the  foot  is 
not  dissipated  over  all  the  structures  as  it  should  be.  A 
horse  putting  the  foot  down  (except  when  severely  taxed 
in  draft  and  then  the  toe  reaches  the  ground  first)  receives 
the  concussion  on  the  frog  which  transmits  it  to  the  ten- 
dinous tissue  padding  the  heel  of  the  foot.  From  there  it 
passes  to  the  bones  of  the  foot  apparently  about  the  region 
of  the  first  joint  made  by  the  three  bones,  the  navicular, 
coffin  and  the  coronary,  which  are  admirably  arranged  in 
the  leg  having  a  sloping  pastern  to  each  receive  a  share 
of  the  buffeting.  If  the  pastern  is  sloping  it  would  seem 
that  only  a  small  part  of  the  concussion  is  likely  to  reach 
the  pastern  bone  and  this  seemingly  would  be  completely 
spent  before  the  fetlock  joint  would  be  reached.  This 
joint  when  the  pastern  slopes  properly,  swings  in  a  sling 
of  ligaments  and  tendons  and  consequently  when  the  parts 
below  slope  considerably,  it  is  much  more  effective  in  pro- 
tecting the  bones  of  the  leg  from  the  irritation  that  arises 
from  concussion.  It  is  easy  to  see  why  navicular  disease, 
sidebones  and  ringbones,  are  most  frequently  associated 
with  straight  pasterns.  The  concussion  from  the  foot  in 
the  straight  pastern  falls  most  severely  on  the  first  joint 
formed  by  the  navicular,  coffin  and  coronary  bones  and 
consequently  it  is  about  this  region  that  these  various  bone 
Diseases  are  located.  Concussion  produces  irritation, 
which  continued  results  in  inflammation  followed  by  bony 
deposits.  To  give  the  pastern  the  proper  springiness,  a  pro- 
portionate length  should  be  associated  with  the  slope.  The 
slope,  however,  is  of  still  more  importance  than  length  or 


40  JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 

size.  The  features  of  the  joints  at  both  ends  should  be 
clearly  denned,  showing  that  they  are  completely  free  from 
puffiness,  sidebones  or  other  diseases  or  blemishes. 

It  may  be  stated  here  that  pasterns  that  are  upright  in 
a  mature  horse  generally  become  more  so  with  age  and  the 
action  depreciates  in  proportion.  Such  a  conformation 
gives  but  slight  command  of  the  feet  and  the  horse  that 
has  it  literally  forces  the  feet  into  the  ground  or  batters 
them  on  the  hard  pavement  of  the  city  streets. 

69.    Feet  —  Large,  Dense,  Concave  Sole,  Large  Frog. 

Diseases  and  defects  of  the  foot  are  exceedingly  prevalent 
among  heavy  horses.  As  sound  feet  are  rather  the  excep- 
tion, and  this  is  an  important  structure,  considerable  atten- 
tion should  be  directed  to  it.  The  foot  is  made  up  of  three 
bones.  These  are  covered  by  a  highly  sensitive  secreting 
layer.  The  external  surface  is  made  up  of  the  wall,  sole 
and  frog.  In  shape  the  proper  foot  is  somewhat  irregular 
as  the  outer  quarter  running  back  to  the  sole  curves  consid- 
erably outward,  while  the  inner  quarter  is  straighter.  This 
shape  it  will  be  easily  seen  not  only  gives  a  strong  hold 
upon  the  ground,  but  it  also  decreases  the  possibility  of 
the  inner  edge  of  the  foot  striking  the  opposite  leg  or  inter- 
fering. In  color  the  foot  should  be  dark  and  it  should  have 
a  waxy  appearance.  The  angle  formed  by  the  hoof  from 
the  ground  to  the  top  should  be  about  fifty  degrees.  One 
of  the  parts  to  be  examined  most  critically  is  the  frog.  This 
should  be  plump,  large  and  elastic.  Just  above  the  frog  is 
what  is  known  as  the  sensitive  frog,  which  is  a  mass  of 
blood  vessels  and  nerves  and  above  this  again  is  a  fatty 
frog  which  acts  as  a  buffer.  On  top  of  the  latter  is  the 
small  navicular  bone.  This  bone  is  enveloped  in  a  very 
sensitive  secreting  membrane  and  if  this  becomes  irritated 
in  the  least  through  concussion  resulting  from  the  frog 
not  fulfilling  its  functions  as  a  buffer  then  inflammation  at 
once  sets  in;  the  fluid  for  lubricating  the  joint  is  not  se- 
creted ;  then  follows  absorption  of  the  cartilage  and  finally 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  41 

disease  of  the  bone  which  interferes  with  the  function  of 
the  joint.  These  all  result  in  excruciating  pain  and  greatly 
lessen  the  horse's  utility.  Wide,  open  hoof  heads  (this 
has  reference  to  the  top  of  the  foot)  are  very  desirable. 

70.  Body— Short,  Broad  Back,  Deep  Ribs.    The  typical 
draft  horse  should  stand  comparatively  high  in  front.  This 
should  not  be  due  to  straight  shoulders  or  height  of  the 
withers,  for  when  these  are  high  it  will  generally  be  found 
that  they  are  not  well  covered  with  muscle.    Undue  length 
of  the  back,  very  often  sunken,  is  a  common  defect  of  draft 
horses.    Another  feature  to  look  for  in  viewing  the  barrel 
is  the  breadth  and  depth  of  the  ribs.    If  the  body  is  not 
round  and  the  ribs  well  sprung  and  deep,  the  chest  is 
likely  to  be  narrow.    The  volume  of  the  chest  behind  the 
withers  is  an  index  to  the  capacity  of  the  lungs,  and  it  is 
a  fact  that  horses  that  are  light  there  and  short  in  the  hind 
rib  easily  become  languid  and  depressed  during  exertion. 
The  horse  with  a  poorly  sprung  rib  making  a  shallow  barrel 
and  light  loin  is  usually  a  poor  feeder  and  ill  doer. 

71.  Loin — Thick,  Broad.    The  loin  should  be  thick  and 
broad.    If  there  is  a  slight  elevation  over  the  loin  due  to 
an  extra  development  of  the  muscle  it  may  be  considered 
as  indicating  strength,  though  it  detracts  from  the  sym- 
metry. 

72.  Croup — Broad,  Muscled.      The    croup    should    be 
broad  and  thick  with  muscle.    There  is  considerable  differ- 
ence in  draft  horses  in  regard  to  the  slope  of  the  croup.  In 
some  it  appears  as  if  they  had  been  hit  with  a  board  in  the 
hind  quarter  giving  the  croup  an  extreme  slope,  while  in 
others  it  runs  almost  straight.    The  main  factor  which  adds 
to  the  strength  of  the  croup  is  not  the  slope  of  it  but  the 
degree  to  which  it  is  muscled    The  slope  that  runs  from 
the  center  of  the  hips  to  the  root  of  the  tail  is  made  by  the 
vertebrae  to  which  some  important  muscles  are  attached. 
The  other  slope  which  runs  from  the  sides  of  the  hip  joints 
as  seen  from  the  side  has  perhaps  more  to  do  with  the 
favorable  application  of  power  in  this  part,  than  the  slope 


42  JUDGING  HEAVY  HORSES 

that  has  been  first  mentioned.  It  is  easy  to  see  that  when 
a  muscle  is  perpendicular  to  the  weight  to  be  lifted  the 
power  is  applied  in  the  most  advantageous  way,  just  the 
same  as  when  you  wish  to  lift  a  weight  you  stand  straight 
over  it  instead  of  trying  to  lift  it  at  arm's  length.  There 
seems  to  be  no  real  reason  why  the  croup  should  slope  so 
markedly  as  it  does  in  some  strains  of  horses,  as  it  certainly 
detracts  from  their  appearance. 

73.  Thighs — Muscled ;  Quarters  Full.    Passing  down  to 
the  hind  leg  the  thigh  should  be  closely  examined  for  the 
development  of  muscle  in  that  region.  The  quarters  should 
also  be  observed  with  the  same  object  in  view.    There  is  a 
vast  difference  in  horses  in  this  respect,  and  it  will  some- 
times be  found  that  horses  very  heavily  muscled  at  the 
croup  are  very  lightly  muscled  in  the  quarters.    It  is  a  bad 
defect  for  a  draft  horse  to  be  deficient  in  muscle  in  the 
quarters,  for  it  is  from  these  parts  that  they  obtain  most 
of  their  power  to  pull. 

74.  Hock  — Wide,  Defined,  Properly  Set.     The  hock 
should  be  closely  examined,  for  in  this  joint  there  is  likely 
more  work  done  than  in  any  other  single  joint  of  the  body. 
Narrow,  tied-in  hocks  are  more  subject  to  curbs  than  those 
that  are  broad.    Fleshiness  or  coarseness  about  the  hocks 
is  very  prevalent  among  draft  horses  and  it  is  well  to  ex- 
amine such  closely  for  bog  spavins.    The  tendons  running 
from  the  hocks  should  be  large,  lean  and  firm.    It  is  a  com- 
mon defect  for  a  draft  horse  to  be  too  straight  or  too 
crooked  in  the  hock.    .One  that  is  set  properly  gives  more 
power.    The  worst  trouble  and  the  most  common  one  to  be 
noted  in  hocks  of  draft  horses  is  that  of  fleshiness  or  * '  gum- 
miness, "  and  such  are  not  only  more  liable  to  hock  trou- 
bles, but  it  indicates  coarseness  of  organization  which  is 
not  usually  associated  with  durability.    In  looking  at  the 
hock  it  should  appear  wide  both  from  in  front  of  the 
horse  and  the  side,  especially  so  from  the  latter  point  of 
view.    The  point  of  the  hock  should  be  as  sharp  as  possible 
and  the  same  may  be  said  of  all  its  features.    Some  horses 


Suffolk  stallion,  RENDESHAM  CUPBEARER. 
cultural  Society  Show,  1899. 


First  at  the  Royal  Agri- 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  SUFFOLK  PUNCH   HORSE. 

THIS  BRITISH  breed  of  draft  horses  is  exceptionally  uniform  in  type,  owing 
to  the  fact  that  they  have  been  long  established  and  have  been  carefully 
bred  for  this  feature.  They  are  chestnut  in  color  and  the  best  representatives 
in  form  show  a  type  that  is  low  set,  short  legged  and  deep  bodied.  Consider- 
ing the  average  weight  of  the  breed  they  show  an  unusual  amount  of  this 
be  due  to  the  extreme  development  of  muscle.  The  bone  is  most  frequently 
of  a  high  quality  and  the  limbs  clean  cut  in  every  feature,  while  feet  of  dur- 
able texture  are  among  their  common  attributes.  They  have  a  well  estab- 
lished reputation  for  being  docile  in  temperament,  easy  keepers,  steady  when 
working,  and  activity  is  a  leading  quality  of  the  breed.  Desirable  weight  is 
sometimes  absent  in  its  representatives  and  frequently  when  this  is  ample  it 
is  secured  by  abnormal  fatness  rather  than  by  general  massiveness.  While 
the  fact  that  their  qualities,  chiefly  activity  and  durability,  especially  adapt 
them  for  general  farm  work  of  lighter  draft  purposes,  yet  the  importance  of 
the  other  essential  and  draft  qualities,  especially  weight  should  not  be  over- 
looked by  the  judge  in  the  show  ring. 


HIAWATHA  (10067),  Vol.  XVIII.  Champion  Clydesdale  stallion; 
bay;  rising  nine  years  old;  height  17-1  hands  high;  weight  at  present 
i'128  Ibs.  Bred  by  William  Hunter,  Garthland  Mains,  Stranraer. 
Property  of  John  Pollock,  Paper  Mill,  Langside.  Winner  of  first 
prizes  in  the  Aged  Open  Class  and  the  Cawdor  Scottish  cup  at  the 
Scottish  Stallion  Show,  Glasgow,  in  1898  and  1899;  first  prize  and 
R.  H.  the  Prince  of  Wales'  Gold  Medal  at  H.  A.  S.  Show,  Edinburgh, 
1899;  first  prize  and  Duke  of  Montrose  Plate,  Glasgow  Summer  Show; 
also  Duke  of  Portland's  cup  at  Ayr,  1900  ;  first  prize  and  Cawdor 
Challenge  cup  at  Scottish  Stallion  show,  Glasgow,  1901. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    CLYDESDALE   HORSE. 

THE  representatives  of  this  breed  of  Scotch  draft  horses  are  usually  bay, 
brown,  black  or  chestnut  in  color,  with  white  markings.  In  conforma- 
tion, the  leading  characteristics  sought  are  the  possession  of  weight  with 
quality  and  action.  While  the  adherents  of  the  breed  recognize  the  value 
of  weight  yet  they  always  associate  with  it  quality  of  structure  with  superior 
mechanical  action,  and  in  judging  a  class  of  horses  of  this  breed  these 
features  should  have  equal  prominence.  The  head  in  the  typical  Clydesdale, 
though  sometimes  out  of  proportion  to  the  other  parts,  is  usually  possessed 
of  intelligent  features.  To  secure  the  action  desired  the  shoulders  must  be 
sloping  so  as  to  permit  a  free  and  long  stride  in  the  walk  and  trot ;  the  arm 
must  necessarily  be  full  muscled,  legs  fiuted  and  fiat  with  a  fine  feather 
springing  from  the  edge.  The  pasterns  which  have  received  much  attention 
in  the  formation  of  this  breed,  should  be  decidedly  sloping,  the  hoof  head 
or  top  of  the  foot  should  be  large,  and  no  amount  of  fine  feather  or  excel- 
lence of  pastern  should  be  allowed  to  overbalance  the  necessity  of  a  good 
sized  foot,  correctly  shaped  and  of  splendid  wearing  texture.  The  back 
should  be  short  and,  though  seemingly  low  from  the  extra  style  secured  by 
high  carriage  of  head,  should  never  be  weak,  which  is  prevented  by  short- 
ness in  this  part,  and  with  an  easy  rising  and  full  coupled  loin  running 
smoothly  into  a  strong  croup.  The  quarters  should  be  well  muscled  and  the 
hind  legs  in  addition  to  having  every  evidence  of  quality  should  be  properly 
set,  meaning  thereby  that  they  stand  close  and  the  parts  have  correct  pro- 
portion in  relation  to  each  other.  In  no  case  should  style  be  allowed  to  sup- 
plant essential  draft  qualities,  as  it  would  be  a  fault  of  judgment  to  permit 
high  carriage  and  flashy  action  to  attain  prominence  over  a  deep  middle, 
strong  coupling  in  association  with  properly  set  limbs,  as  the  source  of 
Clydesdale  popularity  is  the  degree  to  which  they  combine  the  many  essen- 
tials of  a  draft  horse  with  activity. 


STRUCTURAL  EXAMINATION  43 

are  especially  sharp  in  the  prominences  of  the  hock  leading 
some  to  question  their  freedom  from  spavins.  This  forma- 
tion is  desirable  for  the  reason  that  it  is  usually  associated 
with  the  best  quality  of  bone  and  tendon  and  further  it 
gives  this  region  more  power  because  of  the  more  favorable 
attachment  of  the  tendons  that  pass  these  points. 


SCALE    OF    POINTS    FOR    DRAFT    HORSES GELDING.  t5 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  || 

Weight,  over  1,500  Ibs.;  score  according  to  age 4 

Form,   broad,   massive,   proportioned      4 

Quality,  bone  smooth,  hard;   tendons  lean;    skin  and 

hair   fine    4 

Temperament,   energetic,   good   disposition 4 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Head,  lean,  medium  size 1 

Muzzle,  tine;  nostrils  large;   lips  thin,  even 1 

Eyes,  full,  bright,  clear 1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,   medium   size,  well  carried 1 

Neck,  muscled,  crest  high;   throatlatch  fine;   windpipe 

large     1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder,  sloping,  smooth,  snug,  extending  into  back     2 

Arm,  short,  thrown  back .  .  . 1 

Fore  Arm,  heavily  muscled,  long,  wide 2 

Knees,  wide,  clean  cut,  straight,  deep,  strongly  sup- 
ported    2 

Cannons,  short,  lean,  wide;  sinews  large,  set  back.  ..      2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 1 

Pasterns,  sloping,  lengthy,  strong 3 

Feet,  large,  even  size;  horn  dense;  sole  concave;  bars 
strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  one-half 

length  of  toe  and  vertical  to  ground 8 

Legs,  viewed  in  front,  a  perpendicular  line  from  the 
point  of  the  shoulder  should  fall  upon  the  center  of 
the  knee,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  the  side, 
a  perpendicular  line  dropping  from  the  center  of  the 
elbow  joint  should  fall  rpon  the  center  of  the  knee 
and  pastern  joints  and  back  of  hoof 4 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  wide,  low,  large  girth 2 

Ribs,  long,  close,  sprung 2 

Back,  straight,  short,  broad 2 

Loins,    wide   ,shcrt,   thick,   straight    2 

Underline,  flank  low 1 


4  !  JUDGING    HORSES 

SCALE    OF    POINTS    FOR    DRAFT    HORSES GELDING 

Continued 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide 2 

Croup,  wide,  muscular 2 

Tail,  attached  high,  well  carried 1 

Thighs,    muscular 2 

Quarters,  deep,  heavily  muscled 2 

Gaskin  or  lower  thighs,  wide  muscled 2 

Hocks,    clean   cut,    wide,   straight 8 

Cannons,  short,  wide;   sinews  large,  set  back 2 

Fetlocks,  wide,  straight,  strong 1 

Pasterns,   sloping,   strong,   lengthy 2 

Feet,  large  even  size;  horn  dense;  dark  color;  sole  con- 
cave; hars  strong;  frog  large,  elastic;  heel  wide,  one 

half  length  of  toe  and  vertical  to  ground 6 

Legs,  viewed  from  behind,  a  perpendicular  line  from 
the  point  of  the  buttock  should  fall  upon  the  center 
of  the  hock,  cannon,  pastern  and  foot.  From  side,  a 
perpendicular  line  from  the  hip  joint  should  fall 
upon  the  center  of  the  foot  and  divide  the  gaskin  in 
the  middle;  and  a  perpendicular  line  from  the  point 
of  the  buttock  should  run  parallel  to  the  line  of  the 
cannon  4 

ACTION: 

Walk,  smooth,  quick,  long,  balanced 6 

Trot,  rapid,  straight,  regular 4 

Total.  .  .100 


TV.     JUDGING    HORSES    IN    THE    BREEDING    CLASSES. 

The  preceding-  discussion  has  most  to  do  with  the  judg- 
ing of  the  various  types  of  the  horse  in  use  for  pleasure  or 
for  work;  so  that  it  is  necessary  to  present  some  details 
that  should  be  observed  in  making  awards  in  the  breeding 
classes.  In  this  wrork  the  judge  must  closely  discriminate 
between  the  peculiar  characteristics  of  the  sexes  and  also 
employ  much  judgment  in  determining  the  development 
according  to  the  age. 

75.  Sex  Characteristics.  Preceding  birth  and  for  some 
time  in  foetal  life,  there  are  no  evidences  of  sex.  Such  are 
apparent  at  birth,  but  it  is  not  until  the  approach  of  pu- 
berty that  the  sex  characteristics  referred  to  here  begin  to 
develop.  After  this  period  is  reached  the  sexes  begin  to 


IX    THE    BREEDING    CLASSES  45 

diverge  from  each  other,  the  male  acquiring  characteristics 
that  are  distinctly  masculine,  while  the  female  acquires 
others  peculiarly  feminine  in  that  they  are  strikingly  dif- 
ferent from  those  of  the  male.  The  reproductive  cells  of 
each  seem  through  their  characteristics  to  influence  the 
peculiarities  of  the  sexes  in  a  remarkable  manner. 

76.  Differences  in  Disposition.  In  all  classes  of  farm 
live  stock  there  are  very  noticeable  differences  in  disposi- 
tion, that  may  be  credited  to  the  influence  of  the  sex.  The 
active  disposition  of  the  male  animal  oftentimes  is  forced 
to  spend  itself  in  the  development  of  viciousness  and  it 
cannot  be  disputed  that  such  has  been  true  of  many  of  the 
best  breeding  sires,  especially  among  those  of  the  lighter 
breeds  of  horses  and  the  dairy  breeds  of  cattle.  The  differ- 
ence in  the  nature  of  the  sexes  is  even  characteristic  of  the 
reproductive  cells — the  sperm  or  male  cell  being  active  and 
smaller,  while  the  ovum  or  female  cell  is  larger  and  more 
stable.  From  this  condition  through  the  various  stages  of 
life  the  differences  in  the  disposition  of  the  sexes  is.  easily 
traceable.  The  lamb  of  the  male  sex  becomes  combative 
and  more  active  in  disposition  as  he  develops  while  the  ewe 
lamb  loses  the  early  activity  that  was  common  to  all  and 
develops  into  the  gentler  ewe ;  the  calf  of  the  male  has  a 
fierceness  of  mien  that  seeks  active  experssion  in  imaginary 
combats,  becoming  easily  excited  to  anger,  when  it  is  no- 
ticeable that  the  suppliant  bawl  has  become  a  fierce  roar ; 
while  the  cow  has  lost  the  playful  energy  that  she  had  as 
a  calf  and  now  has  none  to  spare  for  anything  but  her  quiet 
vocation  of  making  milk ;  the  colts  tend  to  develop  the 
same  restless  activities  while  the  fillies  assume  the  quieter 
quality  of  mind  common  to  maternity,  and  in  like  manner 
the  pigs  separate  in  their  dispositions  as  the  sex  character- 
istics become  pronounced.  Thus  in  all  live  stock  the 
changes  of  disposition  are  traceable  to  sexual  development 


46  JUDGING   HORSES 

and  it  is  because  of  the  close  connection  between  the  two 
features  that  many  breeders  consider  the  characteristic 
disposition  valuable  indications  of  future  usefulness  for 
breeding  purposes. 

77.  Differences  in  Form.     In  the  development  of  the 
sexes  marked  differences  in  form  result.     The  true  male 
form  is  heavier  at  the  shoulders  than  the  female  while  the 
latter  is  wider  in  the  region  of  the  pelvis.    This  should  be 
borne  in  mind  in  critically  examining  animals  of  the  differ- 
ent sexes,  for  it  may  oftentimes  prevent  an  adverse  critic- 
ism which  should  be  favorable  comment.     It  is  not  infre- 
quent to  hear  the  remark  passed  that  a  ram  for  instance, 
in  a  breeding  class,  would  be  an  exceptionally  good  sheep 
if  he  were  as  wide  behind  as  he  is  in  front.    This  is  thought 
by  some  to  be  the  striking  defect  of  our  mutton  breeds 
(and  perhaps  it  is)  but  in  many  instances  it  is  but  the  uni- 
versal pattern  that  nature  has  adopted  for  the  male  form. 
A  male  of  any  class  of  stock  should  be  expected  to  be 
wider  in  the  chest  than  behind  though  it  should  not  be 
weak  in  the  latter  part.    Width  of  hip,  however,  is  not  the 
chief  qualification  of  the  female  form ;  depth  in  this  region 
or  length  of  the  barrel  and  from  rib  to  hip,  is  of  more  im- 
portance as  this  makes  provision  for  the  proper  growth 
of  the  foetus. 

78.  Variation  in  Features.    There   are  many  marked 
variations  in  the  features  that  are  characteristic  of  the  dif- 
ference in  the  sexes.    In  the  stallion  the  face  has  a  harder 
look  and  the  head  is  larger.     The  neck  is  fuller  and  the 
crest  or  swell  of  the  neck  is  very  pronounced  and  sur- 
mounted with  a  heavy  mane.    The  mare  has  a  slimmer  face 
with  a  softer  expression,  the  neck  is  thin  and  often  ewe 
shaped  and  the  mane  light  and  fine.    In  cattle  the  face  of 
the  bull  is  more  or  less  burly  and  covered  with  wavy  hair, 
the  horn  is  strong  and  inclined  to  roundness  while  the  neck 
ic  thick  and  stout  with  a  full  crest.    In  the  cow  the  face  is 
long,  free  from  wavy  hair,  the  horn  light  and  flat  and  the 
neck  thin  and  in-curved  on  the  top  line.    In  sheep  the  face 


Shire  mare,  HENDRIE  CROWN  PRINCESS,  first  in  1898  and  first  and 
jreserve  champion  Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show,  1899.  Sold  for 
;$5,500  at  Lord  Wantage's  auction  sale. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE    SHIRE    HORSE. 

Z1MONG  the  representatives  of  this  long  established  breed  of  English  draft 
«*  •  horse  the  most  desirable  form  is  low,  broad  and  massive.  Weight  is  con- 
sidered a  leading  feature  and  so  with  this  we  must  associate  the  attributes 
of  being  heavily  built,  muscular,  with  large  bone  and  rather  slow  movement 
Strength  of  shoulder  has  been  preferable  to  slope,  which  has  probably  given 
power  in  the  collar  but  detracted  from  the  freedom  and  length  of  the  stride. 
The  body  of  the  best  representatives  is  of  exceptional  merit,  being  large  in 
girth,  deep,  strongly  coupled  with  broad,  short  back  and  heavily  muscled 
quarters.  Their  points  of  excellence  are  undoubtedly  exceptional  weight, 
made  up  of  heavy  bone,  full  muscular  development,  with  width  and  depth 
of  form;  asosciated  with  these  qualities  there  are  kindred  deficiencies  which 
are  sometimes  in  evidence,  meaning  thereby  a  lack  in  general  quality,  coupled 
with  a  sluggish  temperament.  The  superior  consideration  which  has  been 
given  to  weight  has  frequently  overbalanced  the  claims  of  action,  conse- 
quently while  showing  to  excellent  advantage  standing  there  are  some  which 
fail  to  sustain  their  merit  when  their  action  is  shown.  A«lack  of  quality  in  a 
draft  horse  must  necessarily  be  discountenanced  for  durability  depends  on 
this  and  also  on  the  set  of  the  limbs. 


The  imported  Percheron  stallion  HAUTBOIS,  winner  in  aged  class  at 
the  International  Exposition  in  1911.  Shown  by  McLaughlin  Bros., 
Columbus,  Ohio. 

DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  PERCHERON   HORSE. 

IN  THE  establishment  of  this  French  breed  of  draft  horses  the  guiding 
ideal  has  been  to  develop  an  active  and  durable  type  of  draft  horses  suited 
for  drawing  loads  at  a  rapid  pace.  The  degree  to  which  weight  is  desirable 
in  the  modern  draft  horse  has  resulted  in  the  production  of  a  heavier  type 
with  these  characteristics  yet  in  evidence.  The  modern  type  of  this  breed 
is  short  legged,  compactly  and  stoutly  built.  The  representatives  which  best 
exemplify  the  type  show  an  active  temperament,  intelligent  heads,  short,  full 
crested  necks,  with  deep  body  and  wide  croup.  To  meet  the  requirements 
of  their  patrons  they  must  possess  with  this  abundance  of  quality,  attractive 
style  and  active  movement.  The  modern  type  shows  a  difference  from  the 
original  in  being  black  in  color  and  somewhat  closer  to  the  ground  than 
those  first  imported.  The  original  gray  Percheron  had  for  its  peculiar  char- 
acteristics an  unusual  combination  of  strength  and  active  action  with  style 
and  endurance.  They  had  an  abundance  of  style,  with  round  bodies  and 
an  exceptional  quality  of  bone.  The  highest  type  of  this  breed  in  the  present 
show  rings  should  be  typical  of  an  active  draft  horse  with  the  quality  and 
the  substance  to  justify  durability.  To  serve  this  purpose  to  the  fullest 
extent  the  necessity  of  regular  and  straight  action  with  properly  set  limbs 
should  not  be  a  secondary  consideration  in  any  show  ring,  and  in  the  mmd 
of  the  judge  no  amount  of  flashy  action  and  toppiness  should  be  allowed  to 
overbalance  these  features.  The  weight  that  is  necessary  in  representatives 
of  this  breed  should  be  made  up  of  a  desirable  quality  of  bone  with  muscle  in 
those  parts  where  real  strength  resides  and  not  by  a  development  in  regions 
that  have  little  to  do  with  pulling  power. 


l.\    THE    BREEDING    CLASSES  47 

of  the  ram  is  shorter  and  heavier  and  the  neck  has  a  heavy 
''scrag"  or  crest.  The  ewe's  face  is  finer  and  the  neck 
much  lighter.  In  swine  the  boar's  head  is  short  and  in- 
clined to  coarseness  and  the  tusks  are  strong  and  large. 
The  neck  is  full  and  the  bristles  abundant  and  with  age 
the  shields  (thickening  of  the  hide  over  the  shoulder 
blades)  develop.  The  sow  is  smaller  in  the  face,  the  neck 
much  lighter  and  finer  just  at  the  point  where  it  joins  the 
head.  These  things  are  all  features  of  the  sex  character- 
istics and  their  value,  which  will  be  discussed  in  what  fol- 
lows, will  indicate  the  degree  to  which  they  should  be 
looked  for  in  all  breeding  classes. 

79.  Relation  of  Sex  Characteristics  to  Sterility.  When 
the  sex  characteristics  that  have  been  described  fail  to 
develop  in  the  mature  animal,  it  is  invariably  good  evi- 
dence of  the  lack  of  procreative  power.  The  effect  of 
castration  is  evidence  of  the  fact  that  if  anything  inter- 
feres with  the  maturity  of  the  reproductive  organs,  the 
cex  characteristics  fail  to  develop.  If  the  operation  is  per- 
formed early  in  life  there  is  a  decided  approach  to  the 
characteristics  of  the  feminine  type  in  the  instance  of  geld- 
ings, steers,  wethers  and  barrows.  On  the  other  hand,  it 
is  equally  true  of  the  opposite  sex — thwarted  or  impaired 
development  results  in  the  production  of  the  characteris- 
tics that  are  peculiar  to  the  male  type.  As  an  instance  of 
this  the  occurrence  of  "free  martins"  in  cattle  may  be 
cited.  This  term  is  applied  to  twins  in  which  the  one  is  a 
male  and  the  other  a  female  The  female  usually  possesses 
the  sex  characteristics  of  the  male  as  she  has  the  coarse 
appearance  in  the  head,  neck  and  horn,  and  when  this  is 
::o  it  will  be  found  that  she  is  invariably  infertile.  Ex- 
treme effeminacy  on  the  part  of  the  male  is  equally  indic- 
ative of  sterility  as  may  be  attested  to  by  the  effeminate 
appearance  and  the  sterility  that  results  from  inbreeding 
some  classes  of  stock.  Low,  referring  to  this  says  of 
closely  in  and  inbred  animals,  "They  become  as  it  were 
sooner  old ;  the  males  lose  their  virile  aspect  and  become 


48  JUDGING   HORSES 

at  length  incapable  of  recreating  their  race."  Walker 
(Intermarriages)  cites  many  instances  that  have  been  ob- 
served by  different  poultry  breeders,  bearing  out  the  pro- 
position that  sterility  through  close  in  and  inbreeding  with 
some  animals  is  followed  by  the  loss  or  interchange  of  sex 
characteristics. 

80.  Relation  of  Sex  Characteristics  to  Prepotency.  The 

non-development  of  the  sex  characteristics  in  the  male  is 
indicative  of  the  lack  of  vigor  and  that  in  turn  has  a  close 
relation  to  prepotency  or  the  impressive  powers  of  a  sire. 
Effeminacy  means  a  lack  of  tone  in  muscle  and  loss  of 
vigor  and  this  is  very  observable  in  sires  lacking  in  im- 
pressive powers,  while  the  most  noted  sires  in  the  history 
of  breeding  have  been  remarkably  virile  with  the  charac- 
teristics of  masculinity  unusually  developed. 

81,  The  Stallion  Classes.    Excepting  the  sex  character- 
istics the  stallion  should  have  the  qualities  that  have  been 
described  in  the  class  for  geldings.     The  stallion  should 
have  the  determined  expression,  the  hard  features,  the  high 
crest  and  full  neck,  that  are  evidences  of  masculinity.  With 
these  there  should  be  the  active  vigorous  temperament, 
which  also  indicates  virility.    The  testicles  should  be  nor- 
mal in  size  and  both  should  be  visible  in  the  sac  or  scro- 
tum, for  impotency  is  often  indicated  by  their  non-appear- 
ance. 

It  is  a  frequent  subject  for  discussion  as  to  whether  or 
not  the  stallions  in  some  classes  should  be  judged  solely  as 
to  their  individual  merit  or  also  include  the  merit  of  their 
pedigree,  performance  and  progeny.  Usually  the  condi- 
tions relating  to  the  awarding  of  the  prizes  are  explicit 
enough  to  avoid  such  a  discussion  but  where  they  are  not 
it  is  best  to  consider  in  making  awards  all  the  attributes 
that  will  add  to  the  value  of  the  stallion.  Pedigree  in  a 
breeding  class  has  a  value,  so  has  performance;  and  for 
this  reason  they  should  be  given  consideration  along  with 
the  personal  merit  of  the  stallion  and  his  progeny.  In  the 
Instance  of  a  standard  bred  trotter  it  is  assumed  by  some 


IN    THE    BREEDING    CLASSES  49 

that  the  fact  that  the  stallion  complies  with  the  standard 
is  sufficient  consideration  to  give  his  breeding  but  those 
who  have  given  the  matter  any  study  will  concede  that 
there  is  a  vast  difference  in  the  value  of  the  pedigrees  of 
standard  horses.  The  judge  should  be  able  to  discriminate 
between  pedigrees  and  also  to  be  broad  minded  enough  to 
include  in  his  estimate  of  the  different  stallions  before  him 
the  other  characteristics  that  make  the  animal  valuable 
for  breeding  purposes. 

82.  Importance  of  Correct  Conformation.  In  the  breed- 
ing classes  special  attention  should  be  given  to  the  confor- 
mation. A  defect  of  conformation  even  in  the  smallest  par- 
ticular is  very  apt  to  be  transmitted  and  for  that  reason 
it  should  be  discountenanced  in  breeding  stock.  It  is  gen- 
erally known  that  even  such  a  slight  matter  as  a  twist  of 
the  fetlock,  or  the  turn  of  the  foot  in  action  is  very  likely 
to  pass  from  a  stallion  to  all  his  get.  Considering  however 
greater  defects  such  as  a  curby  hock,  a  weak  knee  or  other 
malformations,  it  is  certainly  the  duty  of  the  judge  to  pro- 
nounce against  them.  To  present  this  feature  plainly  it 
may  be  stated  that  a  breeder  would  be  better  justified  in 
using  a  stallion  that  had  a  spavin  on  a  well  constructed 
hock  than  one  that  was  without  a  spavin  but  had  a  hock 
that  was  very  defective  in  conformation ;  the  reason  being 
that  in  the  instance  of  the  well  constructed  hock  with  a 
spavin  it  is  certain  that  the  horse  was  subjected  to  a  severe 
wrench  or  injury  of  some  kind  else  the  spavin  would  not 
be  there.  In  the  instance  of  the  horse  with  the  badly  con- 
structed hock  it  needs  only  the  opportunity,  which  occurs 
in  nearly  all  kind  of  work,  to  develop  a  spavin,  and  the 
reason  there  is  not  one  there  is  solely  because  extra  care 
has  been  given  to  the  protection  of  this  part.  Breeding 
animals  of  this  kind  may  be  so  carefully  tended  and  pam- 
pered that  they  fail  to  show  such  diseases  as  would  be  pro- 
duced by  their  conformation  under  the  ordinary  stress  of 
labor. 


50  JUDGING    HORSES 

83.  Hereditary  Diseases.     In  these  classes  it  is  of  im- 
portance to  have  in  mind  the  diseases  that  are  known  as 
hereditary.     This  term  does  not  imply  that  the  disease  is 
directly  transmitted  but  that  a  horse  having  them  trans- 
mits to  his  get  a  decided  tendency  to  contract  them.   The 
newly  born  foal  never  shows  them,  but  from  its  parents  it 
inherits  the  defects  of  conformation  that  predisposes  it 
towards  these  diseases.    The  Royal  Commission  composed 
of  the  leading  veterinarians  of  England  have  decided  that 
the  following  diseases  in  horses  are  hereditary :   Roaring, 
whistling,    sidebone,    ringbone,    navicular    disease,    curb, 
bone  spavin,  bog  spavin,  thoroughpin,  grease,  shivering 
and  cataract. 

84.  The  Mare  Classes.    In  addition  to  the  lighter  head, 
neck  and  fore  quarter  which  is  the  proper  type  of  the  sex, 
the  mare  should  specially  differ  from  the  stallion  in  the 
roominess  of  the  barrel.    The  ribs  should  be  deeper  and  the 
body  bss  compact  and  with  much  more  length  of  loin  than 
in  the  case  of  the  stallion. 

85.  Colts  and  Fillies.    This  is  probably  the  hardest  class 
for  the  judge  to  satisfy  himself  in  rendering  decisions. 
This  class  cannot  be  judged  without  considering  the  pos- 
sibilities of  the  future  which  comes  only  from  experience. 
It  is  the  growthy  colt  or  filly  with  ideal  limbs  and  rather 
lanky  body  that  is  likely  to  prove  the  superior  animal 
when  mature ;  while  the  compact,  smooth  bodied  colt  or 
filly  that  is  not  constructed  on  correct  mechanical  prin- 
ciples is  likely  to  develop  into  a  disappointment. 

V.      ESTIMATING  THE  AGE  OF   HORSES  BY  THEIR  TEETH. 

It  is  necessary  to  know  the  indications  of  age  as  they 
appear  in  the  teeth  that  no  animal  may  be  unfairly  classed 
with  those  that  are  younger.  The  indications  become  in  a 
degree  satisfactory  to  those  who  have  proven  them  many 
times  by  personal  observation  and  experience  in  noting  the 
differences  that  exist.  It  is  to  be  remembered  however, 


Percheron  mare  CASTILLE  78956  (64553.)  Champion  Percheron 
mare  at  the  International  Exposition  in  1911.  Shown  by  Dunhams 
Wayne,  111. 


Sketches  of  horses'  teeth,  showing — 1,  a  temporary  incisor  or 
characteristic  shape  ;  2,  a  permanent  incisor,  broader  and  longer  than 
No.  1  ;  3,  a  permanent  incisor  with  lines  indicating  the  appearance 
of  the  two  as  it  is  subjected  to  wear.  At  "A"  the  unworn  surface  of 
the  new  tooth  is  shown.  At  "B"  the  mark  is  indicated  with  the  general 
shape  of  the  table.  At  "C"  it  is  noticeable  that  the  mark  becomes 
much  smaller  while  at  "D"  the  triangular  shape  of  the  tooth  that  is 
well  worn  makes  its  appearance;  4,  shows  the  natural  mark  and  table 
of  a  horse's  tooth.  It  will  be  noticed  that  there  is  a  ring  of  enamel 
around  the  black  mark  or  center ;  5,  this  sketch  shows  the  table  of 
the  horse's  tooth  that  has  been  "Bishoped"  or  fixed  so  as  to  bear  some 
resemblance  to  a  young  tooth  with  the  natural  mark.  This  black 
mark  has  been  made  in  the  tooth  by  the  use  of  a  hard  instrument. 


2  to  4  Years 
<Tl.  _.4'/2  to  5  Years 

Sketch  of  the  permanent  incisors,  indicating  the  order  in  which  they 
appear  in  pairs.  The  central  pair  of  permanent  incisors  in  both  the 
upper  and  lower  jaws  apear  when  the  horse  is  about  two  and  one-half 
or  three  years  of  age,  the  next  pair  replace  the  temporary  incisors 
when  the  horse  is  about  four  years  of  age,  and  the  outside  pair,  mak- 
ing a  full  mouth,  usually  appear  at  five  years  of  age. 


FIVE  YEARS 

LOWER  INCISORS 


Six  YEARS 

LOWER  INCISORS 


SEVEN  YEARS  EIGHT  YEARS 

LOWER    INCISORS  L°WER  |NC'SO^ 

At  live  years  it  will  be  noticed  t.hat  the  marks  are  very  distinct  and 
the  tables  worn  but  slightly  in  all  of  the  incisors.  At  six  years  tin- 
center  pair  in  the  lower  jaw  show  some  wear,  the  mark  becoming 
smaller.  At  seven  years  the  second  pair  have  nearly  lost  their  marks, 
while  at  eight  the  third  or  outside  pair  show  considerable  wear  with 
but  a  trace  of  the  mark. 


ESTIMATING  THE  AGE  BY  THEIR  TEETH  51 

that  the  foods  fed  them  have  a  marked  influence  on  the 
wear  of  the  teeth,  thus  making  differences  which  are  not 
solely  due  to  age.  Liberal  feeding  which  favors  early  ma- 
turity is  also  likely  to  affect  the  appearance  and  arrival  of 
the  incisors. 

86.  Appearance  of  Incisors.    The  difference  in  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  milk  teeth  or  temporary  incisors  and  the 
permanent  incisors  is  readily  understood  after  they  have 
been  once  inspected.    The  temporary  incisors  are  slender, 
narrow  and  constricted  at  the  neck  and  very  white,  while 
the  permanent  incisors  are  broader,  thicker  and  usually  of 
a  light  yellowish  tinge. 

87.  Order  of  Appearance  of  Incisors.    The  permanent 
incisors  of  both  the  upper  and  the  lower  jaws  appear  at 
the  same  time  so  that  it  is  only  necessary  to  refer  to  the 
upper.     There  are  six  permanent  incisors  in  each  jaw  in 
the  full  mouth  and  these  make  their  appearance  in  pairs 
about  as  follows:    The  pair  in  the  center  are  the  first  to 
appear  and  they  have  displaced  the  temporary  pair  and  are 
full  grown  when  the  colt  is  from  2l/2  to  3  years  old.    The 
second  pair  or  the  two  next  to  these  are  fully  grown  at 
3!/2  to  4  years  and  the  third  pair  have  displaced  the  two 
corner  temporary  incisors  at  4%  to  5  years  of  age.     At 
this  time  the  horse  usually  has  a  full  mouth. 

88.  Disappearance  of  the  Tables.    The  best  indications 
of  the  age  from  five  to  ten  years  is  the  order  of  the  disap- 
pearance of  the  tables  or  marks  in  the  incisors.     At  five 
years  the  tables  in  the  central  pair  of  incisors  of  the  lower 
jaw  show  some  wear  but  it  is  not  until  the  horse  is  about 
six  years  old  that  they  have  almost  disappeared.  At  seven 
years  of  age  the  " swallow-tail' '  as  it  is  called,  or  the  nick 
in  the  corner  incisor  appears.     At  this  age  also,  the  two 
incisors  next  to  the  central  pair  lose  almost  all  traces  of 
their  tables  through  wear,  and  at  eight  years  the  corner 
incisors  or  outside  pair  are  so  worn  as  to  be  almost  free 
from  any  appearance  of  having  tables.    At  nine  years  of 
age  the  tables  have  disappeared  from  the  central  pair  of 


C2  JUDGING    HORSES 

incisors  in  the  upper  jaw ;  at  ten  the  marks  in  the  next  pair 
in  the  upper  jaw  are  about  worn  out  and  when  eleven  is 
reached  the  tables  have  almost  disappeared  from  the  corner 
pair  of  the  upper  row  of  incisors.  Sometimes  the  teeth  are 
"bishoped,"  that  is,  marks  are  made  in  the  teeth  to  repre- 
sent tables  thus  making  the  horse  appear  to  be  younger 
by  the  tables  of  its  teeth.  This  treatment  may  always  be 
told  from  the  unnatural  appearance  of  the  table  as  the 
normal  tooth  always  has  a  rim  of  enamel  around  the  tables. 
After  a  horse  passes  beyond  the  age  mentioned  it  is  a 
difficult  matter  to  make  any  further  estimate  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty.  As  the  age  increases,  however,  the  up- 
per surface  of  the  incisors  appear  more  triangular  and  the 
teeth  spring  from  the  jaw  with  a  greater  slope. 

vi.     EXAMINATION  FOR  UNSOUNDNESS. 

89.  A  Blemish  Different  from  Unsoundness.  A  blemish 
is  something  that  depreciates  the  value  of  a  horse  without 
interfering  with  its  usefulness.    Such  injuries  as  wire  cuts 
mar  the  appearance  of  a  horse  and  are  properly  called 
blemishes,  while  unsoundness  include  spavins,  curbs,  ring- 
bones and  all  other  diseases  that  lessen  the  usefulness  of 
a  horse  in  its  sphere. 

90.  Decayed  and  Worn  Teeth.    In  examining  a  horse 
for  unsoundness  it  is  well  to  follow  a  regular  order  begin- 
ning  with   the   teeth.      The    best   indication   of   decayed 
teeth   or   any   similar  unsoundness   of  the   mouth   is   the 
odor  that  comes  from  it  or  attaches  itself  to  the  hand 
on  the  introduction  of  the  latter.     If  the  outer  edges  of 
the  incisors  are  broken  and  worn  away,  it  is  an  indica- 
tion   that    the    horse  is  addicted  to   "cribbing"  in  the 
stable. 

91.  Discharges  from  the  Nostrils.    The  nostrils  should 
be  of  a  fresh  pink  color  somewhat  moist  but  there  should 
be  no  discharge  from  them.     If  there  is,  glanders  or  dis- 
temper may  be  suspected,  which  should  lead  to  a  trial  of 
the  mallein  test  if  there  is  any  suspicion  of  the  former. 


TEN  YEARS 
UPPER    INCISORS 


ELEVEN  YEARS 
UPPER    INCISORS 


FIFTEEN  YE.ARS 
LOWER   INCISORS 


Passing  to  the  permanent  incisors  in  the  upper  jaw  at  nine  years  the 
central  pair  have  almost  completely  lost  their  mark.  At  ten  those 
adjoining  these  have  reached  the  same  condition,  while  at  eleven  the 
marks  have  about  vanished  from  all  of  the  permanent  incisors.  It 
will  be  noticed  that  as  the  age  advances  the  appearance  of  the  worn 
tables  assumes  a  more  triangular  form. 


TWENTY  ONE  YEARS 
FIVE  YEARS 

Comparison  of  a  five-year-old  mouth  with  one  that  is  twenty  years 
old,  showing  the  marked  contrast  that  develops,  as  age  advances,  in 
the  slope  of  the  teeth  as  viewed  from  the  side.  To  Goubaux  and 
Barrier's  "Exterior  of  the  Horse"  the  author  is  greatly  indebted  for 
the  prints  of  horses'  teeth  which  have  been  shown.  These  have  been 
modified  somewhat  to  bring  out  more  clearly  the  necessary  distinctions. 


EXAMINATION  FOE  UNSOUNDNESS  63 

92.  Impaired  Vision.     In  regard  to  the  eye  there  are 
many  defects  of  vision  which  can  hardly  be  termed  un- 
soundnesses,  yet  they  should  be  carefully  looked  for.     A 
horse  by  its  action  will  usually  indicate  if  the  eyesight  is 
good.    Stepping  inordinately  high  or  an  inclination  to  shy 
readily  indicate  defective  vision.     By  moving  the  hand 
gently  in  front  of  the  eye,  blindness  may  generally  be  dis- 
covered if  the  eye  is  so   affected.   The  hand  should  be 
moved  slowly  for  if  the  motion  is  made  quickly  the  in- 
fluence of  the  air  on  the  eye  will  induce  the  horse  to  shut 
it  though  it  may  not  have  seen  the  motion  of  the  hand. 

93.  Defective  Hearing.     Defects  of  hearing  are  more 
common  than  is  ordinarily  supposed  and  they  can  usually 
be  foretold  by  the  action  of  the  ears.    Rigid  ears  indicate 
that  the  hearing  has  been  lost.     On  the  other  hand  when 
the  ears  are  used  excessively  there  is  reason  to  suspect 
that  the  eyesight  is  not  as  perfect  as  it  should  be  and  on 
that  account  the  horse  is  trying  to  make  its  ears  assist 
its  eyes  by  following  closely  every  sound. 

94.  Sweenied  Shoulders.     Passing  to  the  shoulder  it 
should  be  closely  observed  for  the  presence  of  sweeny. 
This  is  a  shrinkage   or  atrophy  of  the  muscles  of  this 
region  leaving  the  shoulder  appear  flat  and  the  blade  bare 
of  muscle. 

95.  Capped  Elbows.    On  the  point  of  the  elbow,  shoe 
boils  or  capped  elbows  may  be  frequently  seen.   The  point 
of  the  elbow  is  unduly  enlarged  by  the  accumulation  of 
matter.    It  is  a  blemish  as  it  is  unsightly  though  not  inter- 
fering with  the  horse  at  work. 

96.  Splints.     Continuing   down  the   fore  leg,   splints 
should  be  looked  for  on  the  cannon.    They  may  be  found 
on  almost  any  part  of  this  region  but  some  care  is  neces- 
sary not  to  mistake  the  ends  of  the  two  small  bones,  that 
are  associated  with  the  cannon,  for  splints.  In  some  horses 


54  JUDGING    HORSES 

the  ends  of  these  bones  are  surmounted  with  noticeable 
knobs.  If  these  lumps  are  found  on  both  legs  in  exactly 
the  same  place,  it  may  be  taken  for  granted  that  they  are 
natural.  When  the  splint  is  located  at  the  back  of  the  leg 
near  the  tendon  or  close  to  the  knee  joint,  so  as  to  inter- 
fere with  the  action,  it  is  in  the  worst  place  that  it  is  pos- 
sible to  have  it.  A  small  splint  in  a  position  of  the  leg 
where  it  is  not  likely  to  cause  lameness  is  not  considered 
by  most  judges  to  be  more  than  a  blemish.  The  fact  that 
splints  on  young  horses  very  frequently  disappear  in  a 
year  or  two  is  sufficient  reason  for  overlooking  this  defect 
when  it  is  present  in  young  animals. 

97.  Ringbones.     These   are   generally  located  on  the 
pastern.     There  are  two  forms  of  it  called  high  and  low 
ringbone,  depending  on  the  location.    Ordinarily  it  is  situ- 
ated at  the  hoof  head  where  the  foot  joins  the  pastern  and 
it  may  be  on  any  one  of  the  four  feet.    Usually  it  can  be 
seen  because  of  the  prominence  produced  but  the  hand 
should  be  passed  over  the  part  that  a  small  form  of  it 
may  not  escape  detection. 

98.  Sidebones.     By  pressing  the  thumb  and  the  fore 
finger  around  the  hind  quarter  of  the  front  foot  this  dis- 
ease may  be  easily  detected.     It  is  common  to  the  front 
feet  only.    Small,  hard  prominences  may  be  found  on  the 
side  of  the  pastern  just  above  the  foot  in  horses  that  have 
them.    They  were  originally  cartilage  but  became  ossified 
and  solid  causing  pain  and  considerable  lameness  especi- 
ally when  the  horse  having  them  is  driven  on  hard  roads. 

99.  Quarter  Cracks  and  Sand  Cracks.    The  feet  are  sub- 
ject to  many  forms  of  unsoundness  and  among  the  most 
prevalent  are  sand  cracks  and  quarter  cracks.     In  very 
sandy  districts  during  the  hot  days  of  summer  when  horses 
are  driven  considerable  the  hoof  becomes  so  heated  that  it 
cracks  and  in  time  results  in  a  very  troublesome  disorder. 
Usually  this  defect  originates  from  weak  feet.     Quarter 
cracks  are  very  similar  to  sand  cracks  excepting  that  they 
are  seen  on  the  quarters  of  the  hoof.     They  extend  from 


EXAMINATION   FOR  UXSOUNDXESS  55 

the  coronary  band  or  the  hoof  head  to  about  the  middle  of 
the  hoof  in  cases  of  ordinary  severity.  Looking  at  the  bot- 
tom of  the  foot  there  should  be  no  cracks  running  from 
the  bars  to  the  top  of  the  hoof.  Large  cracks  here  are  very 
common  owing  to  the  general  practice  of  cutting  out  the 
heels  in  shoeing. 

100.  Corns.    These  are  generally  located  in  the  corner 
of  the  heels  and  their  presence  may  be  more  or  less  indi- 
cated by  the  way  a  horse  will  shrink  when  the  sole  of  the 
foot  is  hit  in  that  region  with  the  handle  of  a  knife. 

101.  Thrush  and  Scratches.    Thrush  is  a  diseased  con- 
dition of  the  foot  in  the  region  of  the  frog  and  invariably 
makes  its  presence  known  by  the  disagreeable  odor  that 
comes  from  it.     Scratches  occur  in  the  back  part  of  the 
pastern,  and,  while  not  properly  an  unsoundness,   they 
cause  the  animal  affected  a  great  deal  of  pain  and  annoy- 
ance.    It  is  a  condition  due  to  the  filthiness  of  this  part 
and  will  generally  disappear  before  cleanliness  and  anti- 
septic lotions. 

102.  Locating  Lameness.    In  locating  lameness  in  the 
leg,  it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  it  is  the  sound  limb 
that  the  horse  puts  down  with  the  most  confidence  and 
when  the  ailing  leg  comes  to  the  ground  an  effort  to  ease 
it  is  made  by  throwing  the  head  up.    When  a  horse  shows 
lameness  in  the  front  legs,  if  the  trouble  is  in  the  shoulder 
the  leg  will  usually  be  flexed  at  the  knee  when  standing  at 
ease;  but  when  the  sprain  or  lameness  is  below  the  knee 
the  affected  limb  will  be  extended.     When  sore  on  both 
front  feet  they  will  be  extended  as  far  as  convenient. 

103.  Thoroughpin.    In  detecting  diseases  in  the  region 
of  the  hock  or  in  fact  in  any  other  part,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  first  know  the  outlines  of  the  perfect  struc- 
ture.   This  has  special  application  to  the  diseases  of  this 
region ;  for  there  are  many  that  may  show  but  a  very  slight 
variation  from  the  normal  condition  ^nd  thoroughpin  is 
one  of  these.    Thoroughpin  is  located  between  the  tendon 
of  the  hind  leg  and  the  bone  and  appears  just  above  the 


56  JUDGING    HORSES 

hock.     It  consists  of  a  soft  swelling  that  .may  b*1  pushed 
from  side  to  side. 

104.  Curb.     Curb,  which  occurs  just  below  the  hock 
and  to  the  rear  is  a  thickening  of  the  ligaments  in  that 
region.     By  looking  at  the  leg  from  the  side  it  may  be 
easily  noticed  as  it  is  a  variation  from  the  straight  line 
which  should  run  from  the  point  of  the  hock  down  towards 
the  end  of  the  cannon. 

105.  Bone  Spavin.     The  most  common  trouble  of  the 
hocks,  and  the  worst  of  all,  is  bone  spavin.    To  detect  this, 
it  is  best  to  stand  in  front  of  the  horse  and  take  a  position 
so  that  in  looking  back  the  inner  outline  of  the  hind  leg 
may  be  seen  very  clearly.     This  is  a  bone  deposit  which 
nature  has  thrown  out  to  strengthen  an  otherwise  weak 
joint  and  when  it  has  developed  it  ties  the  joint  so  that  it 
interferes  with  the  proper  action  of  the  horse.     The  hind 
leg  instead  of  coming  down  on  the  heel  as  it  should  in  a 
sound  limb,  is  thrown  forward  so  that  the  toe  reaches  the 
ground  first  and  the  stride  is  unnaturally  shortened,  and 
lameness  frequently  results.    Occult  spavin,  that  is  where 
the  deposit  is  not  aparent  to  the  eye  but  hidden  in  the 
joints,  is  very  hard  to  determine ;  the  usual  method  of  de- 
tection is  to  lift  the  suspected  leg  and  then  starting  the 
horse  quickly  observe  the  result  when  the  foot  reaches  the 
ground.    Undue  shrinkage  indicates  the  presence  of  spavin 
in  this  form. 

106.  Bog  Spavin.    Bog  spavin  is  usually  associated  with 
thoroughpin  and  it  is  very  similar  to  the  latter ;  differing 
from  it  only  in  location.     In  the  natural  depression  that 
occurs  on  the  inner  and  front  part  of  the  hock,  the  oil  from 
the  joint  accumulates  and  forms  a  soft  swelling  commonly 
known  as  bog  spavin.    The  term  blood  spavin  is  sometimes 
applied  to  the  enlargement  of  the  vein  that  passes  across 
the  hock  from  in  front.    This,  however  is  not  an  unsound- 
ness. 

107.  Unsound  in  Wind.    After  giving  all  the  parts  care- 
ful inspection  for  soundness,  the  horse  should  be  driven 


EXAMINATION   FOR  UNSOUNDNESS  57 

rapidly  for  a  quarter  of  a  mile  so  as  to  discover  wind 
troubles.  The  horse  should  be  stopped  quickly  and  then 
by  advancing  close  to  the  neck  the  breathing  may  be 
noted  whether  free  and  easy  or  accompanied  with  a  sound 
similar  to  whistling.  If  the  breathing  is  characterized  by 
a  wheezing  or  whistling  sound,  then  whistling,  roaring  or 
some  other  disorder  of  the  air  passages  is  present.  If  the 
origin  of  the  sound  is  doubtful — it  might  be  possible  to 
result  from  too  tight  a  collar — have  the  horse  taken  out  of 
the  harness  and  ridden  rapidly.  When  the  breathing  is 
not  regular  it  is  likely  that  the  horse  is  troubled  with  the 
heaves.  In  the  instance  of  horses  so  afflicted,  the  breathing 
is  more  or  less  spasmodic,  the  air  from  the  lungs  seeming 
to  be  half  expelled  when  the  respiration  stops  for  a  brief 
period  and  then  the  expulsion  of  the  air  is  continued.  In 
this  way  the  depression  of  the  flanks  is  not  gradual  and 
continuous  as  it  is  in  the  instance  of  the  horse  with  sound 
lungs  but  it  is  stayed  for  a  short  period  at  a  time  when  the 
breath  is  about  half  expelled  from  the  lungs. 

108.  Detection  of  Stable  Vices.  Horses  may  have  many 
stable  vices  that  detract  greatly  from  their  utility,  but 
these  cannot  be  discovered  as  a  rule  in  the  show  ring.  To 
make  a  satisfactory  examination  of  a  horse,  it  is  necessary 
to  see  it  in  the  stable,  then  have  it  harnessed,  hitched, 
driven  and  subjected  to  a  critical  examination,  and  after 
these  things  have  been  given  careful  consideration  it  will 
be  only  after  continuous  companionship  on  the  road  that 
a  man  may  be  said  to  truly  know  his  horse. 


58  JUDGING    HORSES 


VII.    OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  FOR  HORSES. 

THE   TROTTING   STANDARD ADOPTED   BY    THE  AMERICAN 

TROTTING     REGISTER     ASSOCIATION. 

When    an    animal    meets    these    requirements    and    is    duly 
registered     it  shall  be  accepted  as  a  standard  bred  trotter: 

1.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  and 
a  registered  standard  trotting  mare. 

2.  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse 
provided    his   dam    and    grand    dam    were   sired   by   registered 
standard  trotting  horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  record  of  2:30 
and   is  the  sire   of  three  trotters  with   records  of   2:30   from 
different  mares. 

3.  A   mare   whose   sire   is   a   registered    standard    trotting 
horse,  and  whose  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered 
standard  trotting  horses,  provided  she  herself  has  a  trotting  re- 
cord of  2:30  or  is  the  dam  of  one  trotter  with  a  record  of  2:30. 

4.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered  standard   trotting  horse, 
provided  she  is  the  dam  of  two  trotters  with  records  of  2:30. 

5.  A  mare  sired  by  a  registered   standard  trotting  horse, 
proivded  her  first,  second  and  third  dams  are  each  sired  by  a 
registered  standard  trotting  horse. 

THE    PACING    STANDARD. 

When   an    animal    meets     these    requirements     and   is   duly 
registered,  it  shall  be  accepted  as  a  standard  bred  pacer: 

1.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse  and 
a  registered  standard  pacing  mare. 

2.  A  stallion  sired  by  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse, 
provided    his    dam   and    grand    dam    were   sired    by    registered 
standard  pacing  horses,  and  he  himself  has  a  pacing  record  of 
2:25,  and  is  the  sire  of  three  pacers  with  records  of  2:25,  from 
different  mares. 

3.  A  mare  whose  sire  is  a  registered  standard  pacing  horse 
and  whose  dam  and  grand  dam  were  sired  by  registered  stand- 
ard  pacing  horses,   provided   she  herself  has  a  pacing  record 
of    2:25,  or  is  the  dam  of  one  pacer  with  a  record  of  2:25. 

4.  A   mare   sired   by   a   registered   standard    pacing   horse, 
provided  she  is  the  dam  of  two  pacers  with  records  of  2:25. 

5.  A   mare   sired   by   a    registered    standard   pacing   horse, 
provided  her  first,   second  and  third   dams  are  each  sired  by 
a  registered  standard  pacing  horse. 

6.  The  progeny  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  horse  out 
of  a  registered  standard  pacing  mare,  or  a  registered  standard 
pacing  horse  out  of  a  registered  standard  trotting  mare. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS  FOR  HORSES  59 

.SCALE    OF    POINTS    FOR    SHETLAND    PONY — ADOPTED    BY 
AMERICAN    SHETLAND   PONY    CLUB. 

Constitution — Constitution  indicated  by  general  healthy 

appearance,  perfect  respiration,  brightness  of  eyes.  .  .  10 

Size — Ponies  over  four  years  old,  42  inches  and  under  in 
height,  two  points  to  be  deducted  for  every  inoh  over  42 
up  to  46  inches,  fractional  portions  to  count  as  full 
inches 25 

Head — Head  symmetrical,  rather  small  and  fine,  wide  be- 
tween eyes,  ears  short  and  erect 10 

Body — Barrel  well  rounded,  back  short  and  level,  deep 

chested,  good  breast,  compact,  "pony  build" 10 

Legs — Legs  muscular,  flat  boned,  hind  legs  not  cow-hocked 

or  too  crooked 25 

Mane  and  Tail — Foretop,  mane  and  tail  heavy 10 

Feet — Good    10 

100 

Note.  In  judging  horses  the  height  is  sometimes  a  subject 
of  discussion  so  that  the  manner  of  determining  this  should 
be  well  understood.lt  is  generally  conceded  that  the  horse 
should  stand  on  a  perfectly  level  floor  and  the  measurement 
made  to  the  highest  point  of  the  withers.  The  position  of  the 
horse  should  be  such  that  the  head  at  the  poll  should  be  in 
line  with  the  withers  and  this  parallel  to  the  floor.  The  fore 
legs  and  hind  legs  should  be  as  perpendicular  to  the  floor  and  as 
parallel  to  each  other  as  the  conformation  of  the  horse  per- 
mits. It  should  be  noted  that  the  spirit  level  in  the  cross  bar 
of  the  standard  should  indicate  that  it  is  being  held  properly. 
The  horse  should  be  measured  in  shoes  of  the  same  thickness 
as  he  wears  when  in  competition  in  the  show  ring. 


JUDGING  CATTLE. 


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CHAPTER  II. 

JUDGING  CATTLE. 

109.  Method  of  Examination.    In  judging  cattle  in  the 
show  ring  the  most  satisfactory  plan  is  to  make  a  very 
careful  scrutiny  of  the  animal  as  it  stands  before  you; 
then  approaching  it  from  the  front,  notice  the  head  and 
neck  before  placing  the  hands  upon  the  shoulder  to  re- 
view the  various  parts  of  the  body. 

I.    JUDGING  BEEF  CATTLE. 

110.  Method  of  Handling.    In  judging  beef  cattle  it  is 
of  much  importance  to  see  that  they  stand  properly  and 
are  not  held  so  as  to  hide  any  natural  defects  which  other- 
wise would  be  easily  seen.    They  should  stand  on  a  surface 
as  level  as  possible  with  the  legs  naturally  placed  under 
them,  with  the  head  held  straight  forward.    By  variations 
from  this  it  is  quite  possible  to  hide  from  the  examiner  as 
he  makes  his  first  inspection  many  of  the  natural  defects. 
It  becomes  very  easy  to  vastly  improve  the  handling  quali- 
ties of  an  animal  by  turning  the  head  towards  the  judge 
or  to  make  the  top  or  lower  lines  more  level  by  choosing 
an  advantageous  position.    In  moving  towards  the  animal 
from  in  front,  note  the  characteristics  of  the  head  and  neck 
quickly  and  then  placing  the  hand  upon  the  shoulder  and 
using  the  tips  of  the  fingers  feel  the  compactness  of  the 
shoulder,  its  covering  and  the  smoothness  with  which  it 
fits  to  the  body.    From  this  point  it  is  usual  to  pass  to  the 
back,  handling  this  region  very  carefully  as  the  back  rib 


64  JUDGING   CATTLE 

and  loin  is  the  most  valuable  part  in  the  butcher's  point  of 
view.  After  handling  the  back  carefully,  the  covering  of 
the  ribs  should  also  be  observed  very  closely.  It  is  con- 
sidered a  good  method  for  determining  the  quality  of  the 
flesh  to  gently  push  the  ends  of  the  fingers  between  the 
ribs.  If  there  is  no  natural  flesh  or  muscle  there,  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  are  easily  inserted  in  this  region  but  if  the 
flesh  is  of  the  best  quality  and  it  is  mostly  muscle  the  ends 
of  the  fingers  cannot  be  inserted  very  far  between  the  ribs. 
To  estimate  the  character  of  the  skin  and  the  mellowness 
of  the  flesh,  the  skin  is  generally  lifted  between  the  first 
finger  and  the  thumb  and  its  quality  carefully  noted.  Then 
with  the  fingers  flat  gentle  pressure  against  the  rib  reveals 
the  mellowness  or  firmness  of  the  flesh.  The  thickness  of 
the  loin  is  an  exceedingly  important  point  and  one  of  the 
ways  of  determining  this  is  to  push  the  back  of  the  hand  in 
at  the  lower  level  of  the  loin  and  then  note  the  distance 
from  the  top  of  the  loin  to  the  back  of  the  hand.  Leaving 
this  point  the  fullness  and  characteristics  of  the  hind 
quarter  are  observed,  then  the  fullness  of  the  flank  and  the 
cod,  which  make  the  criticism  of  the  one  side  of  the  animal 
complete.  Standing  squarely  behind  it,  the  development 
of  the  hind  quarter  is  noted  after  which  it  is  only  necessary 
to  pass  down  the  other  side  very  similar  to  that  which  has 
been  followed  on  the  right  side. 

The  steer  may  be  considered  from  two  points  of  view. 
The  first  has  to  do  with  the  qualities  of  the  store  steer  or 
feeder  to  be  fattened,  while  the  other  refers  to  the  merits 
of  the  prime  steer  that  is  ready  for  the  butcher. 

111.  Store  Steers.  It  is  a  common  practice  in  some 
communities  for  the  stockmen  to  buy  young  steers  with 
the  object  of  feeding  them  for  market.  The  steers  are 
generally  procured  in  the  early  fall,  fed  through  most  of 
the  winter  months'  and  put  on  the  market  in  the  spring 
or  early  summer.  The  most  forcible  factors  in  determin- 
ing the  profits  from  this  work  is  the  skill  of  the  purchaser 
in  selecting  animals  that  will  make  good  feeders  and 


Aberdeen  Angus  steer  ADVANCE,  champion  International  Exposition, 
Chicago,  1900.  Bred  and  fed  fcy  Stanley  R.  Pierce,  Creston,  111.  Illus- 
trating the  type  most  desirable  for  the  block  as  the  flesh  is  of  the 
right  quality  and  most  abundant  in  the  proper  places. 


Photograph  of  a  steer  selected  to  show  the  form  that  is  not  desirable 
either  from  the  standpoint  of  the  feeder  or  the  butcher. 


Photo  by  Hills. 

Shorthorn  steer  BRITISHER,  illustrating  desirable  type  for  a  feeding 
steer  as  shown  in  a  short  face,  large  muzzle,  wide  forehead,  short  neck, 
deep  chest,  straight,  wide  back,  deep  ribs  and  smooth,  long  hind  quar- 
ters. 


The  type  and  other  finalities  usually  indicative  of  an  undesirable 
feeding  steer  showing  thin,  long  neck,'  sharp  withers,  shallow  chest, 
narrow  back,  thin  loin,  light  quarters,  long  legs  and  the  characteristic- 
expression  of  the  steer  that  eats  most  and  makes  least  progress  in 
the  feed  lot. 


jr DOING    BEEF    CATTLE  65 

then  buying  them  at  a  proper  price.  The  skill  lies  gener- 
ally in  being  able  to  estimate  the  possibilities  of  improve- 
ment in  the  animals  selected ;  and  to  do  this  with  any  de- 
gree of  certainty,  calls  for  a  practical  knowledge  of  the 
conduct  of  animals  in  the  feed  lot  where  the  reasons  for 
the  points  are  unfolded  and  tested. 

112.  Form  of  the  Feeder.    The  best  feeding  steers  are 
comparatively  wide,  round  and  deep  ribbed.     The  steer 
that  stands  high  from  the  ground,  light  in  the  flanks  and 
shallow  in  the  heart  girth  rarely  makes  a  good  feeder. 
In  type  the  form  of  the  store  steer  should  fill  out  a  paral- 
lelogram, the  lines  being  true  in  every  direction. 

It  should  be  broad  and  deep  in  front  and  this  should  be 
characteristic  of  the  hindmost  parts  as  well.  As  much 
width  as  possible  is  desirable  if  it  is  not  accompanied  with 
roughness  over  the  shoulder  or  the  hips  or  hooks.  It  is 
not  expected,  however,  that  a  store  steer  should  be  as 
level  and  smooth  in  form  as  the  finished  animal  ready  for 
the  block.  Stoutness  of  form  with  depth  of  body  are 
usually  the  characteristics  of  vigorous  feeders,  which  may 
be  accounted  for  by  the  supposition  that  in  the  stout  in- 
dividual the  blood  currents  have  less  distance  to  travel 
and  consequently  the  circulation  is  more  active. 

113.  Quality.    The  possession  of  quality  does  not  seem 
to  have  much  influence  on  the  feeding  ability  of  the  steer 
though  it  has  a  marked  effect  on  the  value  of  the  steer 
after  being  fattened.     Animals  of  quality  usually  fatten 
more  quickly  than  those  that  are  rough  and  coarse,  though 
if  the  latter  are  exceptionally  vigorous,  which  is  generally 
the  case,  they  will  sometimes  make  greater  gains  than 
those  having  quality  because  of  delicacy.     Quality  in  the 
steer  means  fine  bone,  soft,  mellow  hide  and  silky  hair; 
while  such  attributes  as  a  very  rough,  heavy  frame,  coarse 
joints,  prominent,  ragged  hips  and  rough,  open  shoulders 


66  JUDGING    CATTLE 

are  the  most  pronounced  evidences  of  deficiency  in  this 
feature. 

114.  Inferences  from  Good  Handling.     The  handling 
of  a  feeder  or  the  condition  of  the  hide  is  one  of  the  most 
valuable  indications  that  may  be  observed.    If  the  skin  is 
mellow  and  elastic,  it  possesses  what  is  called  good  han- 
dling. Such  a  skin  is  invariably  associated  with  rapid  fat- 
tening qualities,  while  a  heavy,  stiff  hide  is  considered  to 
indicate  slower  fattening.      The    previous    management 
which  the  steers  have  had  has  a  marked  influence  on  the 
handling.     When  liberally  fed  and  they  are  thrifty,  the 
skin  has  the  softness  and  elasticity  that  usually  accom- 
panies a  condition  which  has  had  been  termed  by  stock- 
men as  ' '  sappy. "    On  the  other  hand  if  scrimped  in  their 
feed  or  if  it  has  been  dry  without  anything  of  a  succulent 
nature  as  a  part  of  the  ration,  the  skin  becomes  tightly 
attached  to  the  frame  and  it  feels  dry  and  paper  like.    In 
animals  that  possess  good  handling,  when  the  "hand  is 
placed  on  the  body  just  back  of  the  shoulder  and  pressed 
against  it,  there  is  a  soft  elastic  feel  to  the  touch  which  is 
only  found  in  animals  having  a  thick  coat  of  hair  of  fine 
quality,  mellow  skin  and  firm  flesh.    This  feature  of  good 
handling  cannot  be   magnified  too  much  in  judging  all 
classes  of  beef  stock,  for  it  not  only  reflects  the  thriftiness 
of  the  animal  at  the  time  but  also  foretells  its  future 
progress. 

115.  Features  of  the  Head.    The  features  and  propor- 
tions of  the  head  are  usually  a  condensed  reflection  of  the 
rest  of  the  form.     A  broad,  short  head  is  invariably  ac- 
companied with  a  thick,  wide,  low  set  body  and  the  long, 
slim  face  is  generally  associated  with  the  greater  length 
of  body  and  more  narrowness.     There  is  a  co-relation  of 
parts  here  as  elsewhere  that  is  seldom  at  fault  and  no 
other  part  offers  such  a  field  of  study  in  this  regard  as 
that  of  the  head.  The  mouth  and  the  lips  should  be  large, 
making  the  juncture  of  the  muzzle  and  the  face  appear 
to  be  somewhat  concave.   From  the  muzzle  to  the  eyes  the 


THE   ENGLISH    METHOD    OF    CUTTING    BEEF. 

1,  2,  3,  4  and  10 , • 1st  quality 

5.  6  7,  9  and  13 2d  quality 

8,  11  and  12 3d  quality 

14,   15  and  16 * 4th  quality 


CHICAGO   RETAIL   DEALERS'    METHOD   OF   CUTTING   BEEF. 

A  good  1200-lb.  steer  dresses  about  800  pounds,  and  of  this  708 
pounds  is  marketable  meat.  All  of  the  high-priced  cuts  are  taken  from 
ribs,  loins  and  hind  quarters,  and  the  best  cuts  come  principally  from 
the  ribs  -and  loins.  These  valuable  cuts  together  weigh  346  pounds, 
and  at  above  prices  sell  for  $44.55.  The  less  valuable  cuts  from  the 
fore  quarters,  belly  and  flank  weigh  362  pounds  and  bring  only  $16.48. 


Shorthorn  bull,  RINGMASTER.  Champion  of  the  breed  at  leading 
shows  in  1911.  Shown  by  White  and  Smith,  St.  Cloud,  Minn.  Photo 
taken  at  three  years  of  age. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  SHORTHORN   CATTLE. 

THE  SHORTHORN  in  the  course  of  its  development  has  been  mainly  repre- 
sented by  three  family  types — the  Bates,  noted  for  style,  fine  heads,  clean 
necks,  straight,  level  backs,  refined  bone,  with  a  combination  of  milking 
and  beefing  qualities  ;  the  Booths,  famous  for  excellence  in  girth,  wide  backs, 
lengthy  quarters,  deep  llesh  and  beefing  attributes ;  the  Cruickshanks,  or 
Scotch  cattle,  possessed  of  scale,  with  low,  broad,  deep  forms,  heavy  flesh, 
mossy  coats  and  early  maturity.  With  this  as  the  source  of  their  evolution, 
the  modern  shorthorn  should  reflect  in  the  show  ring  a  blending  of  the  fore- 
going family  types  in  possessing  beef  form,  early  maturity  and  all  the  gen- 
eral evidences  of  thrift  and  vigor.  In  the  show  ring  the  type  that  is  recog- 
nized is  that  of  a  beef  animal  combining  the  butcher's  ideas,  the  feeder's 
requirements  and  the  breeder's  demands.  This  means  a  representative  that 
possesses  a  high  percentage  of  valuable  meat  of  the  quality  that  is  desired 
for  the  block.  With  this  there  should  be  the  general  evidences  of  productive 
capacity  in  the  making  of  beef,  which  means  a  full  development  of  the  vital 
organs  and  the  other  regions  which  have  to  do  with  the  powers  of  production. 
In  unison  with  the  breeding,  and  held  in  equal  estimation,  there  should  be 
the  finish,  style  and  other  characteristics  which  the  breeder  seeks  in  the 
breeding  herd  required  chiefly  for  the  production  of  beef.  The  common 
colors  are  red,  white  and  roan,  and  these  as  well  as  all  families  should  not 
be  subject  to  the  personal  preferences  of  the  judge  or  to  present  popularity. 


JUDGING    BEEF    CATTLE  67 

aspect  of  the  face  should  appear  triangular  with  the  base 
at  the  muzzle  and  the  top  at  the  line  running  between  the 
eyes.  The  openings  of  the  nostrils  should  be  very  promi- 
nent indicating  that  there  is  an  abundance  of  lung  ca- 
pacity. The  lower  jaw  should  appear  strong  and  well 
clothed  with  muscle.  The  eyes  should  be  large,  somewhat 
prominent  yet  placid,  indicating  a  quiet,  generous  tem- 
perament. Quietness  and  laziness  are  attributes  of  the 
temperament  favorable  to  the  process  of  fattening  and  we 
know  that  animals  of  lymphatic  temperament  have  both 
these  characteristics.  The  head  should  not  be  long  be- 
tween the  eye  and  the  horn  and  the  poll  should  be  some- 
what prominent  and  topped  with  a  mass  of  wavy  hair.  A 
fine  texture  is  desired  in  the  horn  and  it  should  be  some- 
what flat  in  shape  and  in  no  sense  coarse.  The  ear  should 
be  neatly  attached  to  the  head,  pointed  end  covered  inside 
and  on  the  edge  with  a  profuse  growth  of  fine,  silky  hair. 

116.  Neck— Short,  Full.    The  neck  should  be  short,  in 
fact  many  well  bred  steers  appear  as  if  they  had  none. 
The  top  line  from  the  base  of  the  poll  should  run  back 
straight  and  almost  level  with  the  top  of  the  shoulder. 
The  blade  of  the  latter  should  fit  closely  to  the  body  with 
a  nice  slope  so  that  the  animal  may  have  a  gay  carriage. 
In  steers  that  are  very  coarse  in  the  shoulder  with  the 
blade  standing  out  from  the  body,  this  part  is  apt  to  show 
bare  of  flesh  giving  also  a  marked  appearance  of  shrinkage 
in  the  girth  just  behind  the  blade. 

117.  Chest— Wide,  Deep,  Full.    In  this  region  the  steer 
should  appear  fully  developed  with  the  brisket  light  but 
yet  far  enough  advanced  to  fill  out  the  squareness  of  the 
frame  to  the  proper  degree.    It  will  be  found  frequently 
that  the  narrow  chested  animal  is  a  poor  feeder,  which 
makes  but  little  progress  in  proportion  to  the  feed  that  it 
eats.     In  addition  to  the  chest  being  wide  it  should  also 
be  deep.    The  bottom  of  it  should  come  down  well  between 
the  fore  legs  with  no  shrinkage  behind  these  as  may  be 
noticed  frequently  in  animals  that  are  deficient  in  con- 


68  JUDGING    CATTLE 

stitution.  Such  animals  do  not  have  the  capacity  to  make 
feed  into  flesh  and  fat  economically  as  they  are  deficient 
in  vital  force  or  constitution. 

118.  Ribs— Long,  Hooped.    These  should  be  long  and 
hooped  so  as  to  give  an  abundance  of  room  to  the  vital 
organs,  the  lungs  and  the  heart,  and  also  provide  a  place 
for  the  storage  of  food  in  large  quantities.    A  large,  deep 
chest  and  a  capacious  stomach  are  good  indications  that 
an  animal  has  the  capacity  to  utilize  large  quantities  of 
food  and  make  rapid  progress  in  fattening.    The  hind  ribs 
should  be  comparatively  long  bringing  the  plates  and  the 
flanks  on  almost  a  level  with  the  bottom  of  the  fore  part 
of  the  body.    The  loin  should  be  wide  leaving  the  ribs  on 
a  level  and  joining  the  hind  quarters  with  little  departure 
from  a  straight  line. 

119.  Hips— Smooth;  Long  Hind  Quarters.  While  width 
is  desirable  at  the  hips  yet  smoothness  should  not  be  sacri- 
ficed to  secure  this.    When  the  hips  are  too  wide  apart  they 
are  likely  to  be  prominent  and  appear  coarse.  It  would  be 
impossible  to  finish  such   an  animal  without    the    hind 
quarters  appearing  rough  and  very  deficient  in  covering. 
The    hind    quarters    should    be  long  and  carry  out  the 
squareness  of  form  which  should  be  characteristic  of  the 
fore  quarters  of  the  ideal  feeding  steer. 

120.  Judging  Fat  Steers.    In  judging  the  finished  or 
fattened    steer,  the  view  must    be  largely  that  of    the 
butcher.    The  butcher  invariably  prefers  animals  that  are 
small  in  frame ;  the  low  set,  thick  sort  that  yield  heavily  in 
the  most  profitable  parts.  The  finished  steer  should  also  be 
of  fine  quality  so  that  the  quantity  of  offal  may  be  small, 
as  this  has  much  to  do  with  the  profitableness  of  the  car- 
cass from  the  standpoint  of  the  butcher.    In  coarse  steers 
fully  one-half  of  their  live  weight  is  made  up  of  what  is 
largely  waste  to  the  butcher.    If  the  bone  is  fine,  the  skin 
and  hair  of  good  quality,  there  is  much  less  waste  than  if 
they  were  coarse. 


Hereford  Bull  GAY  LAD  6th.  Champion  of  the  breed  at  the  leading 
shows  of  1911.  Owned  by  O.  Harris  &  Sons,  Harris,  Mo.  Photo 
taken  at  two  years  of  age. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   HEREFORD    CATTLE. 

npHIS  BREED,  which  derives  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  England, 
•*•  is  most  popular  in  color  and  markings  when  showing  a  dark  claret  or 
cherry  with  white  face,  throat,  chest,  legs,  belly,  twist,  and  small  stripe  of 
white  on  neck  and  before  shoulder.  The  type  represented  by  this  breed  is 
that  suitable  for  the  largest  production  of  beef,  as  it  is  low  set  and  broad, 
heavy  in  fore  quarters,  full  deep  chest;  level,  wide  back;  wide,  thick  loin 
and  full  quarters.  In  those  representing  the  best  of  the  breed  the  covering 
of  flesh  is  usually  thick  while  the  coat  possesses  a  thickness  and  mossiness 
which  is  very  conducive  to  the  general  thrift.  The  form  represents  that 
which  is  invariably  associated  with  a  strong  constitution,  vigor  and  pre- 
potency, and  these  qualities  are  sometimes  so  strongly  in  evidence  as  to  give 
rise  to  undue  coarseness  and  roughness  which  should  necessarily  be  dis- 
couraged in  the  show  ring.  Two  of  the  cardinal  qualities  of  the  breed  are 
early  maturity  and  grazing  attributes,  and  as  these  have  their  origin  in 
latural  vigor  and  activity  those  qualities  of  form  and  general  appearance 
which  contribute  to  these  should  have  prominence  in  rendering  decisions. 


Aberdeen  Angus  bull,  PKIXOK  TTO,  the  property  of  Stanley  R.  Pierce, 
Creston,  Illinois.  Champion  of  the  breed,  Royal  Agricultural  Society 
Show. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    ABERDEEN     ANC.TS     CATTLE. 

Till1:  characteristic  color  of  this  brec  1  of  Scotch  cattle  is  black  without 
any  white  beyond  the  udder  or  above  the  under  line.  The  type  of  the 
breed  is  favorable  to  the  production  of  the  highest  quality  of  meat  in  the 
greatest  quantity.  Smoothness  is  a  leading  feature,  this  being  encouraged 
by  the  type  which  is  noted  for  the  rotundity  of  form  with  symmetry  and 
quality,  and  it  should  be  noticeable  in  the  show  animal  by  the  evenness  with 
which  the  flesh  covers  the  carcass  over  all  regions.  The  head  is  hornless 
without  any  appearance  of  scurs,  and  it  should  be  surmounted  by  a  sharp 
poll  ;  neck  free  from  loose  skin  with  a  strong  shoulder  vein  ;  shoulder  oblique, 
iitting  close  to  the  body  and  not  rough  at  the  top  ;  ribs  deep,  circular  ;  hips 
moderately  far  apart,  smoothly  covered  ;  rump,  long,  level,  smooth  ;  thighs 
muscular,  twist  low  and  full  ;  quarters  low,  full  and  rounded.  The  general 
form  is  cylindrical,  covered  with  even  depth  of  mellow  flesh  and  hide  that  is. 
pliable  yet  not  thin,  and  coated  with  fine,  black  hair.  See  official  scale  of 
points,  page  !)0. 


JUDGING    BEEF    CATTLE  69 

121."  Handling — Indicates  Condition  and  Quality  of 
Meat.  The  handling  quality  of  the  prime  steer  has  con- 
siderable value  in  the  butcher's  view.  On  this  he  relies 
for  indications  of  the  steer's  condition,  and  also  the  qual- 
ity of  the  meat.  If  the  covering  of  flesh  is  evenly  dis- 
tributed over  the  steer  and  it  is  springy  and  mellow  to  the 
touch,  it  is  considered  ready  for  the  block.  If  in  denting 
the  side  with  the  finger  the  dent  lingers  some  time  the 
condition  is  due  to  soft,  flabby  fat  that  brings  but  a  small 
price  at  the  butcher's  stalls.  This  is  quite  common  in  fin- 
ishing steers  to  find  them  flabby  in  places,  most  commonly 
over  the  loin  and  about  the  root  of  the  tail.  This  patchi- 
ness  is  due  to  the  unevenness  of  the  fat  distribution  and  it 
is  a  very  undesirable  feature. 

122.  Condition.     A  sure  sign  of  the  condition  of  a  steer 
and  its  fitness  for  the  block  is  fullness  of  the  scrotum  or 
cod.  When  a  steer  is  ready  for  the  butcher  the  scrotum 
will  be  soft  and  large.    The  condition  of  the  flank  is  an- 
other sign  of  ripeness.     This  should  be  thick,  full  and 
pendant,  and  the  lower  lines  of  it  should  be  nearly  even 
with  the  bottom  lines  of  the  body.     Another  indication 
considered  very  reliable  is  the  development  of  tongue  fat 
or  the  fullness  which  appears  at  the  root  of  the  tongue. 

123.  Relation  of  Parts.   In  the  finished  steer  from  the 
butcher's  standpoint  the  head  is  of  little  value,  it  should 
be  in  harmony  with  the  rest  of  the  body  and  not  too  large, 
as  that  means  waste.  The  neck  should  be  short  and  thick. 
The  shoulder  vein  or  the  junctiure  of  the  neck  and  the 
shoulder  should  be  full,  giving  both  these  parts  a  charac- 
teristic smoothness  due  to  the  base  of  the  neck  swelling 
nicely  over  the  shoulder  blade.    The  latter  should  be  well 
covered  and  evenly  packed  on  top.     The  brisket  should 
not  be  too  heavy,  as  this  is  very  cheap  meat,  but  only  ad- 
vanced enough  to  contribute  to  the  desired  squareness  of 


70  JUDGING    CATTLE 

form.  Just  back  of  the  shoulder  there  should  be  no  slack- 
ness in  the  girth.  The  ribs  should  be  well  covered  with 
springy,  mellow,  yet  firm  flesh.  The  loins  should'  be  broad 
and  thick ;  the  reason  for  this  is  that  there  are  more  valu- 
able cuts  in  the  broad,  thick  loin  than  in  the  thin,  narrow 
one,  and  this  region  in  addition  has  a  high  value  in  the 
view  of  the  butcher.  The  hips  should  be  smoothly  covered 
and  their  breadth  should  be  carried  back  uniformly.  The 
hind  quarters  should  be  long,  as  this  adds  greatly  to  the 
value  of  the  carcass.  The  flesh  should  extend  far  down 
the  legs  with  the  twist  deep  and  plump.  Viewed  from  the 
side  the  top  line  of  the  animal  and  the  long  line  should  be 
parallel  or  nearly  so. 

124.  Value  of  Cuts.  The  value  of  the  different  parts 
may  be  said  to  be  a  point  of  first  consideration  with  the 
butcher.  Dividing  the  steer  into  parts  according  to  the 
way  the  butcher  cuts  them,  we  find  that  the  head  is  only 
worth  about  ten  or  fifteen  cents  altogether,  while  the  neck 
only  has  a  value  of  from  three  to  seven  cents.  Then  the 
cut  called  the  chuck,  which  runs  from  the  top  of  the 
shoulder  to  the  beginning  of  the  forearm  and  above  the 
brisket,  is  worth  from  five  to  ten  cents  per  pound.  The 
brisket  as  a  whole  only  has  a  value  of  from  four  to  eight 
cents  while  the  fore  leg  from  the  point  where  it  joins  the 
body  to  the  chuck,  known  as  the  clod,  is  worth  about  six 
cents.  The  crops,  or  as  the  butcher  terms  it,  the  ribs, 
which  consist  of  that  part  just  back  of  the  shoulder,  is 
worth  seven  cents  in  the  poor  steer  against  sixteen  cents 
per  pound  in  the  best.  The  region  just  below  the  crops 
known  as  the  fore  flank  or  plates,  has  a  value  usually 
from  four  to  eight  cents  per  pound.  Following  this  comes 
the  loin  and  this  varies  from  ten  to  twenty  cents.  The 
upper  part  of  the  hind  quarter  has  a  value  of  about  ten 
cents  pe*r  pound,  while  the  lower  part,  ranges  from  ten 
to  twelve  cents  per  pound  in  the  best  steers.  The  neck, 
brisket  and  plates  are  the  cheapest  portions.  In  regard 
to  ribs,  the  two  end  ribs  go  with  the  hind  quarters, 


Galloway  heifer,  LUTIE  LAKE  2nd,  22759  ;  Junior  champion  female 
of  her  breed  at  the  International  Live  Stock  Exposition  in  1904. 
Bred  and  shown  by  O.  H.  Swigart,  Champaign,  111. 

DESCRIPTION   OF   GALLOWAY   CATTLE. 

THIS  BREED,  deriving  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  Scotland,  is 
black  in  color,  with  no  white  admissible  except  on  the  udder  or  below  the 
imder  line.  The  type  represents  a  form  that  is  thick,  close  to  the  ground 
and  symmetrical,  with  long,  wavy  and  thick  coat  of  hair.  As  hardiness  and 
strength  of  constitution  are  leading  features,  there  should  be  every  indication 
of  general  thrift  and  ruggedness  in  a  representative  of  the  breed. 

The  scale  of  points  adopted  by  the  Council  of  the  Galloway  Cattle  Breed- 
ers Association  of  Great  Britain  in  1883  gives  the  features  of  the  breed  in 
detail  as  follows : 

COLOR — Black,  with  a  brownish  tinge. 

HEAD — Short  and  wide,  with  broad  forehead  and  wide  nostrils ;  without 
the  slightest  symptoms  of  horns  or  scurs. 

EYES — Large  and  prominent. 

EARS — Moderate  in  length  and  broad,  pointing  forward  and  upward ;  fringe 
of  long  hairs. 

XECK — Moderate  in  length,  clean  and  filling  well  into  the  shoulders,  the 
top  in  a  line  with  the  back  in  a  female,  and  in  a  male  naturally  rising  with 
age. 

BODY — Deep,    rounded  and   symmetrical. 

SHOULDERS — Fine  and  straight,  moderately  wide  above ;  coarse  shoulder 
points  and  sharp  or  high  shoulders  are  objectionable. 

BREAST — Full  and  deep. 

BACK  AND  RUMP — Straight. 

RIES — Deep  and  well  sprung. 

LOIN  AND  SIRLOIN — Well  filled. 

HOOK  BONES — Not  prominent. 

HIND   QUARTERS — Long,    moderately   wide   and   well    filled. 

FLANK — Deep  and  full. 

THIGHS — Broad,  straight  and  well  let  down  to  hock ;  rounded  buttocks  are 
very  objectionable. 

LEGS — Short  and  clean,  with  fine  bone. 

TAIL — Well  set  on  and  moderately  thick. 

SKIN — Mellow  and  moderately  thick. 

HAIR — Soft  and  wavy,  with  a  mossy  undercoat;  wiry  and  curly  hair  is 
very  objectionable. 


Red  Polled  cow,   DELPHINE,  winner  of  first  prize  at  the  Royal  Agri- 
cultural Society  Show  (England),  in  1899  . 

DESCRIPTION  OF  RED  POLLED  CATTLE. 

*T»HIS  BREED  which  originated  in  Norfolk  and  Suffolk,  England,  have  been 
*•  polled  and  red  in  color  and  otherwise  possessed  the  type  characteristics 
which  now  identify  them  for  a  century  past.  The  type  of  the  breed  should 
represent  a  high  combination  of  beefing  qualities  with  utility  for  dairy  pur- 
poses. This  means  a  form  that  carries  a  covering  of  flesh  and  is  especially 
developed  in  those  parts  which  produce  the  best  quality  of  meat.  The  head 
should  be  clearly  defined  in  its  features,  the  face  being  clean  cut,  the  eye 
full  and  large,  the  ear  medium  size  and  the  poll  sharp  without  any  fullness 
at  the  sides  where  the  horns  are  usually  located.  The  throat  should  be  free 
from  looseness  and  while  fine  should  run  easily  into  a  somewhat  thick  neck 
which  swells  smoothly  over  the  shoulder.  The  chest  should  be  both  broad 
and  deep  and  the  body  should  consist  of  a  back  moderately  broad  and  well 
covered  and  a  rib  that  is  deep  and  somewhat  round ;  the  loin  should  have 
width  with  smoothness  due  to  flesh  and  the  same  should  be  characteristic  of 
the  hind  quarter.  Moderate  meatiness  is  allowable  in  this  region  and  in  the 
cow  the  udder  should  be  specially  well  developed,  large  and  circular  and  the 
teats  of  good  size  and  well  placed.  The  udder  should  be  the  sponsor  for  the 
dairy  qualities  while  the  general  form  and  the  condition  should  be  indicative 
of  the  beefing  propensities.  In  the  show  ring  the  tendencies  towards  beef 
production  find  more  favor  than  those  considered  conducive  to  dairy  qualities. 
See  official  scale  of  points,  page  94, 


JUDGING     BEEF    CATTLK 


71 


white- the  two  second  ribs  in  the  fore  quarters  sell  from 
ten  cents  upwards,  as  they  are  the  best  cuts  in  that 
part.  The  first  two  ribs  in  the  front  quarter  have  a 
value  of  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound.  The  wing  cut 
of  the  sirloin  grows  narrower  as  it  runs  down  but  it 
still  affords  a  large  and  valuable  cut  in  finished  steers. 
Porterhouse  steak  and  sirloin  taken  from  the  parts  which 
run  from  the  front  of  the  hooks  to  the  end  of  the  wing  cut 
(that  is  where  the  fore  quarter  is  separated  from  the  hind 
quarter)  is  worth  from  ten  to  twenty  cents  per  pound, 
making  this  region  the  most  valuable  of  the  steer.  The 
rump  steak  which  comes  from  the  lower  part  of  the  hind 
quarter  including  the  thigh  and  twist,  has  only  a  value 
of  ten  to  twelve  cents  per  pound.  When  it  is  understood 
"that  the  average  percentage  of  pounds  that  a  steer  pos- 
sesses is  usually  sixty,  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  butcher 
must  pay  close  attention  to  the  form  which  yields  the 
smallest  percentage  of  offal  and  returns  the  most  valu- 
able cuts.  From  the  foregoing  we  see  that  the  animal 
from  the  butcher's  point  of  view  depends  mostly  on  its 
quality  and  then  on  its  form,  and  in  regard  to  the  latter 
we  find  that  the  value  of  the  animal  grows  greater  as  we 
pass  from  the  fore  quarters  towards  the  hinder  parts.  It 
is  important  to  know  that  the  feeder's  ideal  does  not 
differ  markedly  from  the  best  for  the  butcher,  except 
that  the  latter  has  been  matured  and  fattened. 


Location  of  the  cuts  in  the  dressed  carcass  of  the  steer,  showing  also 
the  pounds  and  the  percentage  returned  by  each  part ;  1,  Shank ;  2, 
Round ;  3,  Rump ;  4,  Loin ;  5,  Rib ;  6,  Flank ;  7,  Plate ;  8,  Chuck ;  9. 
Clod  ;  10,  Neck.  Tenderloins,  Sirloin  Butts,  and  Strips  cut  from  No.  4. 
Rib  Rolls  cut  from  No.  5. 


.  72  JULGING    CATTLE 

SCALE   OF  POIXTS   FOR  BEEF   CATTLE STEEKS.  tj 

££ 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  58 

Weight,  score  according  to  age  10 

Form,  straight  topline  and  underline;  deep  broad,  low 

set,  stylish  10 

Quality,  firm  handling,  hair  fine;  pliable  skin;  dense 

bone;  evenly  fleshed  10 

Condition,  deep,  even  covering  of  firm  flesh,  especially 

in  regions  of  valuable  cuts 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,  broad;  mouth  large;  jaw  wide;  nostrils  large.  1 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid    1 

Face,  short,  quiet  expression 1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  medium  size,  fine  texture 1 

Horns,  fine  texture;  oval,  medium  size 1 

Neck,  thick,  short;  throat  clean 1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder  Vein,  full 2 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth.  2 

Brisket,  advanced,  breast  wide 1 

Dewlap,  skin  not  too  loose  and  drooping 1 

Legs,  straight,  short;  arm  full;  shank  fine,  smooth.  .  .  2 

BODY: 

Chest,  full,  deep,  wide;  girth  large;  crops  full 4 

Ribs,  long,  arched,  thickly  fleshed 8 

Back,  broad,  straight,  smooth,  even 10 

Loin,    thick,    broad    8 

Flank,  full,  even,  with  underline 2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smoothly  covered;   distance  apart  in  proportion 

with     ether  parts   2 

Rump,  long,  wide,  even,  tail  head  smooth,  not  patchy.  2 

Pin  Bones,  not  p^omirent,  far  apart 1 

Thighs,  full,  deen,  wide 2 

Twist,  de°n,  plump 2 

Purse,  full,  indicating  fleshiness 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  shank  fine,  smooth 2 

Total..  .100 


Highland  bull,  LAOICH  1260.  The  property  of  J.  R.  Campbell,  Shin- 
ness,  Scotland.  A  winner  of  numerous  first  and  champion  prizes  at  the 
Royal  Agricultural  Society  Show  of  England  and  the  Highland  Agricul- 
tural Society  Show  of  Scotland.  The  upper  illustration  shows  this  bull 
when  champion  of  the  breed  at  two  years  of  age,  while  the  lower  one 
shows  him  again  when  in  the  same  honored  position  at  six  years  of  age. 
A  comparison  of  these  photographs,  both  taken  by  Reid,  is  very  instruc- 
tive as  they  clearly  indicate  the  development  which  takes  place  as  a 
bull  approaches  maturity. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  HIGHLAND   CATTLE. 

nnHIS  BREED  which  comes  from  the  highlands  of  Scotland  is  noted  espe- 
•••  cially  for  their  robustness  and  the  high  quality  of  the  meat  which  they 
produce.  In  type  they  exemplify  the  characteristics  which  we  associate  with 
constitution,  being  very  deep  and  full  chested,  strong  and  rugged  framed 
with  a  dense  and  long  coat  which  protects  them  from  the  exposure  to  moun- 
tain conditions.  The  head  is  somewhat  shaggy  with  bright,  piercing  eye  and 
the  horns  strong  and  long.  The  neck  is  short  the  chest  deep  and  full  and 
the  fore  quarter  shows  unusual  development  especially  in  the  region  of  the 
vital  organs.  The  back  is  long  and  level  and  the  quarter  well  covered  and 
lengthy.  The  general  form  is  massive  and  the  general  appearance  of  rugged- 
ness  is  added  to  by  a  thick  shaggy  coat  of  various  shades  of  dun,  black  and 
sometimes  brindle  in  color. 


Hereford  bull,  SIR  BRED  WELL,  63685,  by  Corrector,  Champion  at  the 
Trans-Mississippi  Exposition,  1898.  Bred  by  T.  F.  B.  Sotham  of  Chilli- 
cothe,  Mo.  Purchased  by  Col.  C.  Slaughter,  of  Texas,  for  $5,000. 


Ilenr  view  of  Snt  P.RKDWELL  63685,  showing-  the  extent  to  which  it  is 
possible  for  a  bull  to  be  developed  in  the  most  valuable  parts  for  meat 
production.  Note  the  covering  of  the  back,  loin,  fullness  and  depth  of 
the  hind  quarters. 


JUDGING   BEEF    STOCK    FOR    BREEDING    PURPOSES  73 

II.  JUDGING  BEEF  STOCK  FOR  BREEDING  PURPOSES. 

In  judging  beef  stock  for  breeding  purposes,  the 
breeder  must  have  in  view  the  demands  of  his  own  in- 
terests, and  yet  those  of  the  feeder  and  butcher  must 
also  receive  due  consideration.  For  this  reason  the  de- 
sirable qualities  that  are  sought  for  in  feeding  stock,  the 
features  that  make  the  animal  valuable  to  the  butcher 
and  the  attributes  that  the  breeder  knows  to  be  of  value, 
must  all  have  proportionate  consideration.  Those  of  the 
feeder's  and  the  butcher's  type  have  been  discussed,  so 
that  it  is  required  to  comment  only  on  the  peculiar  fea- 
tures that  are  especially  valuable  from  the  breeder 's  point 
of  view.  There  are  two  features  of  this  kind  that  be- 
cause of  their  importance  deserve  special  emphasis  in 
the  judging  of  breeding  stock  in  the  beef  classes,  and 
these  are  the  possession  of  all  the  evidences  of  constitu- 
tion in  combination  with  deep  natural  flesh.  The  breeder 
to  appreciate  his  work  must  rely  greatly  on  the  constitu- 
tion of  his  animals,  for  it  is  this  that  guarantees  thrift 
and  vigorous  reproduction. 

The  other  feature  of  special  importance  in  beef  stock 
is  that  of  natural  flesh.  Natural  flesh  means  the  posses- 
sion of  muscle  or  red  meat  with  which  an  animal  must 
be  born  to  make  a  carcass  for  the  butcher's  block  that  is 
properly  mixed  in  fat  and  lean. 

There  is  no  feature  of  more  value  in  the  breeding  of 
beef  stock  than  that  of  having  natural  flesh  characteristic 
of  all  animals  in  the  herd,  and  there  is  likely  no  other 
quality  which  is  transmitted  with  more  certainty  than 
this. 

125.  Judging  Beef  Bulls.  In  form  and  condition  those 
qualities  which  mark  the  feeder's  and  butcher's  ideal 
should  be  strikingly  shown  in  the  beef  sire.  As  already 
mentioned  there  are  two  features  that  require  special 
emphasis,  as  they  are  especially  valuable  in  the  breeding 
herd  of  beef  cattle  and  consequently  should  be  possessed 
in  a  marked  degree  by  the  head  of  the  herd.  Reference 
is  made  to  constitution  and  depth  or  wealth  of  natural 


74  JUDGING    CATTLE 

flesh.  A  careful  study  of  the  work  of  those  breeders  who 
have  made  a  name  in  the  breeding  of  beef  cattle  will  bear 
out  the  assertion  that  every  one  of  them  appreciated 
these  two  qualities.  To  illustrate  this  point  we  may  use 
the  most  marked  example  in  recent  years,  by  referring  to 
the  work  of  two  of  the  most  successful  breeders  of  beef 
cattle,  Amos  and  Anthony  Cruickshank,  of  Sittyton,  Scot- 
land, as  their  work  bears  out  the  value  of  the  two  features 
that  have  been  selected  for  more  prominence  than  others. 
Two  of  the  best  sires  that  were  used  in  their  herd,  Cham- 
pion of  England  and  Roan  Gauntlet,  have  been  described 
by  a  recent  writer  (Prof.  T.  F.  Jamieson,  in  the  London 
Live  Stock  Journal)  as  possessing  this  quality  in  an  inor- 
dinate degree,  though  they  had  other  features  of  minor 
importance  which,  however,  would  cause  some  judges  to 
overlook  such  animals  in  a  showr  ring.  Referring  to  the 
Champion  of  England,  this  writer  states  that  his  produce 
were  better  than  those  of  any  other  bull  used  at  Sittyton, 
asserting  that  "they  were  large,  growthy,  healthy,  thriv- 
ing beasts,  with  straight  backs,  deep  ribs  and  good  hair; 
heavy  carcasses  on  short  legs;  often  not  so  stylish  and 
neat  in  their  hind  quarters,  for  they  lacked  that  finish  in 
their  frames  that  would  have  brought  them  to  the  top  in 
the  Royal  or  Highland  society's  shows.  A  marked  feature 
was  their  early  development.  No  other  bull's  calves  came 
out  so  strong  as  young  animals.  Champion  himself  was 
in  color  a  roan,  of  good  size  but  not  extra  large,  stood  on 
short  legs,  had  a  deep-ribbed,  heavy  carcass,  a  strong 
back,  which  so  far  from  shrinking  at  all  at  the  loins  or 
middle  rather  tended  to  arch  up  there.  He  had  a  slight 
drop  from  the  hooks  to  the  rump  which  detracted  from 
his  appearance,  but  had  good  hind  quarters,  was  heavy 
and  full  in  his  thighs,  unusually  good  in  his  fore  ribs 
and  had  a  fine  elastic  skin  with  good  hair." 


COUNCILLOR.  MILLIONAIRE.  INGRAM'S    STYLE. 

Yearling  Shorthorn  bulls,  first,  second  and  third  at  R.  A.  S.  E.  Show, 
Birmingham.  INGRAM'S  STYLE  exhibited  by  Mr.  John  Handley  (first 
prize)  ;  MILLIONAIRE,  exhibited  by  Messrs.  G.  and  H.  Bickford  (second 
prize)  ;  COUNCILLOR,  exhibited  by  H.  M.  the  Queen,  (third  prize). 


Reproduced  from  Bibby's  Quarterly. 

Three  Hereford  prize  winners  at  Birmingham  (England)  Fat  Stock 
Show,  first,  second  and  third  in  the  same  class.  The  left  hand  animal, 
GARNISH,  took  first  prize ;  the  middle  one,  GRACE,  third  prize.  The  right 
hand  animal  took  the  second  prize  in  the  same  class.  First  and  third 
prize  winners  both  the  property  of  the  Right  Honorable  the  Earl  of 
Coventry,  president  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society.  The  second  prize 
winner  is  the  property  of  G.  H.  Baker,  Esq.,  The  Hill,  Bridgnorth. 


Aberdeen    Angus    cow    VIOLET    3rd    OF    CONGAS H.     A   celebrated    cow 
imported   and   shown   by  J.   D.   McGregor,   Brandon,   Manitoba,   Canada. 


The  Hereford  heifer  BANZA  316601,  a  prize  winner  in  the 'two  year 
old  class  in  the  shows  of  1911.  Shown  by  J.  P.  Cudahy.  Kansas 
City,  Mo. 


JUDO  IXC,    BEEF   STOCK    FOR    BREEDING    PURPOSES  75 

Commenting  on  Roan  Gauntlet,  this  writer  says :  ' '  Roan 
Gauntlet  was  a  lightish  roan  color,  with  a  deep  heavy 
carcass  on  shortish  legs.  For  size,  quality,  hair  and  sub- 
stance he  was  all  right ;  he  was  well  let  down  in  his  hind 
quarters  and  his  ribs  sprung  out  well  from  his  back, 
but  inclined  to  flatten  lower  down.  He  had  a  biggish 
head  and  his  face  was  covered  with  very  curly  hair.  The 
stock  got  by  Roan  Gauntlet  were,  like  those  of  Champion 
of  England,  of  good  size  and  remarkable  for  their  early 
development,  natural  depth  of  flesh  and  quality."  These 
are  the  qualities  that  the  breeder  desires  to  have  per- 
petuated in  the  produce  of  his  herd,  and  they  are  also 
the  qualities  that  the  feeder  desires  and  the  butcher  re- 
quires in  the  animals  he  buys.  In  addition  to  them  the 
beef  sire  should  have  the  features  of  masculinity  that 
attach  themselves  to  cattle  very  strikingly  apparent.  The 
face  should  be  broad,  the  head  burly,  the  horns  strong 
but  not  coarse,  and  the  crest  full  and  prominent.  There 
should  be  a  marked  appearance  of  massiveness  presented 
in  the  front  view  and  the  hind  quarters  shoiUd  not  in  any 
sense  be  feminine ;  that  is,  they  should  not  have  the  short- 
ness and  width  and  roughness  that  are  usually  associated 
with  those  of  the  other  sex. 

126.  Judging  Beef  Cows.  In  judging  beef  cows  the 
preference  should  be  given  those  that  show  constitution, 
wealth  of  natural  flesh  and  feminine  character.  Constitu- 
tion in  the  female  is  of  as  much  importance  as  it  is  in 
the  sire,  and  its  value  cannot  be  overestimated  in  the 
breeding  herd.  The  question  of  condition  or  flesh  in  this 
class  constantly  challenges  the  judgment  of  the  judge, 
as  it  is  very  frequent  that  a  good  cow  of  excellent  type 
and  style  competes  in  the  show  ring  with  an  indifferent 
animal  in  high  flesh.  While  this  is  an  occurrence  where 
every  instance  will  most  likely  call  for  a  different  judg- 
ment, yet  it  may  be  said  that  the  preference  should  be 


76  JUDGING    CATTLE 

given  to  the  cow  that  is  lacking  in  condition  rather  than 
the  poorer  individual  that  is  highly  pampered.  In  this 
connection  it  should  be  stated  that  cows  are  probably 
more  apt  to  be  rough  and  patchy,  yet  this  is  a  feature 
that  should  always  be  condemned.  Over  the  ribs  there 
are  apt  to  be  creases,  or  around  the  tail  the  fat  may  be 
accumulated  in  bunches  or  the  back  may  show  patches, 
"ties"  or  unevenness  of  flesh.  Though  not  often  trans- 
mitted, yet  this  tendency  to  patchiness  should  be  dis- 
countenanced, as  it  is  an  undesirable  condition  in  all  fat 
stock. 

127.  Judging  Young  Beef  Stock.  In  judging  young 
beef  stock  the  peculiar  feature  to  which  much  importance 
should  be  attached  is  that  of  early  maturity.  Early  ma- 
turity is  a  profitable  characteristic  to  encourage  in  beef 
animals  and  for  that  reason  should  be  given  all  possible 
prominence  in  the  show  ring.  The  young  animals  that 
show  an  early  tendency  to  put  on  an  even  and  somewhat 
firm  and  deep  covering  of  flesh  and  at  the  same  time  show 
size,  constitution  and  quality  are  the  ones  that  should 
have  the  preference  of  the  judge. 

III.     JUDGING  DAIRY   CATTLE. 

To  estimate  the  merits  of  dairy  cows  when  giving  milk 
there  is  no  method  so  satisfactory  as  the  actual  records 
made  with  the  Babcock  test  and  the  scales.  Having  the 
weight  of  milk  yielded,  the  percentage  of  fat  in  it,  dura- 
tion of  the  milking  season  and  period  of  pregnancy  to- 
gether with  the  amount  of  feed  consumed,  the  merit  of 
a  cow  for  dairy  purposes  may  be  rated  accurately.  But 
even  all  these  details  will  not  completely  express  the 
meritorious  qualities  that  it  is  possible  for  a  dairy  cow 
to  possess ;  for  the  breeder  has  in  mind  some  other  quali- 
ties that  he  desires,  chief  among  which  may  be  mentioned 
the  ability  of  the  cow  to  produce  calves  of  the  merit  of 
herself  and  to  continue  doing  this  for  a  number  of  years. 
To  attempt  to  encompass  all  the  merits  that  any  domes- 
ticated animal  may  possess  and  express  this  in  a  scale  of 


Hereford   cow   PRINCESS    16th.      Champion   at   the   Iowa    State   Fair 
in    1911.     Shown   by   O.   Harris  &   Sons,    Harris,   Mo. 


Shorthorn  bull  calf,  SCOTTISH  CHAMPION,  at  7  months.  The  highest 
priced  calf  of  1898.  Bred  by  W.  S.  Marr,  Uppermill,  Scotland.  Sold 
at  auction  for  $1,650. 


Polled  Durham  bull  THE  CONFESSOR.  Champion  at  the  International 
L,ive  Stock  Exposition  in  1J»11.  Owned  by  J.  H.  Miller  and  Sons, 
Peru,  Ind.  The  term  'Doul)le  Standard'  is  applied  to  such  Polled 
Durhams  as  are  eligible  for  registration  in  the  American  Shorthorn 
Herd  Book  as  well  as  in  the  Polled  Durham  Record. 


Photo  by  Reid. 

Hereford  herd  owned  by  Messrs.  Gudgell  &  Simpson,  Independence, 
Mo.  This  herd  won  first  prize  as  the  best  young  herd  at  the  Kansas 
City  National  Live  Stock  Show  in  1900. 


JUDGING    DAIRY    CATTLE  77 

points*  is  at  best  but  a  stimulus  to  the  study  of  them,  and 
it  is  only  with  this  in  mind  that  the  various  scales  of 
points  are  submitted  here  in  this  work.  That  which  fol- 
lows is  used  at  the  London  and  Canadian  Dairy  Show  ag 
a  basis  for  making  awards :  Twenty  points  for  constitu- 
tion and  conformation,  one  point  for  each  pound  of  milk, 
twenty  points  for  each  pound  of  fat,  four  points  for  each 
pound  of  solids  not  fat,  one  point  for  each  ten  days  in 
milk  after  the  first  twenty  days  (limit  200  days) ;  ten 
points  is  deducted  from  the  total  score  for  each  per  cent 
of  fat  below  three  per  cent  fat  in  the  milk, 

While  the  judging  of  dairy  cattle  by  points  may  not 
be  completely  satisfactory,  it  is  a  quick  method  for  use 
in  the  show  ring  and  it  assists  in  the  study  of  the  many 
traits  that  are  common  to  dairy  cattle.  Its  value  does 
not  lie  in  the  degree  to  which  it  assists  in  distinguishing 
the  good  cows  from  the  bad  ones  but  chiefly  for  the  in- 
sight which  it  gives  into  the  nature  aud  functions  of  the 
dairy  animal,  and  it  is  the  deeper  knowledge  of  them 
that  leads  to-  better  care,  more  intelligent  feeding  and 
more  successful  breeding,  which  all  culminate  in  greater 
production. 

128.  Dairy  Cow's  Function.     To  be  able  to  draw  cor- 
rect inferences  from  the  points  of  the  dairy  cow,  it  is 
necessary  to  understand  her  function  and  how  she  per- 
forms it.    The  function  of  the  dairy  cow  is  to  make  milk, 
so  that  it  is  desirable  to  have  a  complete  knowledge  of 
how  she  does  this  and  more  especially  the  operation  of 
the  chief  organs  employed  in  the  process.    After  studying 
this  so  as  to  see  the  work  performed  by  each  part,  it  is 
then  realized  that  the  type  of  the  dairy  cow  is  produced 
simply  by  the  activity  of  these  parts  and  it  is  in  this 
way  that  it  is  possible  to  obtain  a  clear  conception  of 
the  close  relation  of  function  or  work,  to  type. 

129.  Making  of  Milk.     To   understand  how   milk  is 
made  let  us  follow  the  course  of  the  food  after  entering 
the  cow's  mouth.     From  there  it  passes  into  the  gullet 


78  JUDGING    CATTLJE 

and  then  to  the  first  stomach  or  paunch.  After  remaining 
there  for  a  time,  the  most  of  it  is  returned  to  the  mouth 
and  remasticated ;  when  this  is  accomplished  the  food 
passes  through  the  two  other  stomachs  and  finally  lodges 
in  the  fourth.  After  undergoing  a  mixing  process  by  the 
action  of  the  muscles  of  the  stomach,  the  food  passes  into 
the  small  intestines.  Up  to  this  time  the  chief  action  of 
the  various  parts  has  been  to  break  up  the  food,  so  that 
the  fluids  of  the  body  may  act  upon  it,  and  make  the 
digestible  and  nutritive  portion  into  a  solution.  In  its 
passage  thus  far  the  food  has  been  subjected  to  the  action 
of  the  saliva  of  the  mouth  and  the  gastric  juice  of  the 
stomach,  together  with  the  bile  of  the  liver  and  pancreatic 
juice  which  attack  it  in  the  small  intestine.  The  result 
of  this  action  is  that  the  soluble  nitrogenous  material, 
carbohydrates  and  salts  are  now  in  a  condition  to  be  re- 
ceived by  the  blood  and  carried  to  the  parts  of  the  body 
that  make  the  most  abundant  use  of  it.  We  see  from  this 
that  the  stomach  and  its  aids  have  an  important  part  to 
play  in  preparing  the  food,  so  that  it  may  supply  the  cow 
the  material  to  carry  on  her  specialty,  which  is  the  making 
of  milk. 

130.  Function  of  the  Blood,  The  food  now  being  in 
a  condition  to  be  utilized  by  the  animal  economy,  let  us 
see  how  it  passes  into  the  blood  and  finally  reaches  that 
other  great  manufacturing  center  of  the  body  of  the  dairy 
cow,  the  udder.  It  is  the  blood  that  is  the  medium  for 
carrying  the  nutritive  portions  of  the  food  to  the  organs 
needing  them.  The  mucous  membrane  or  inner  lining  of 
the  small  intestines  is  covered  with  a  large  number  of 
small  glands  that  have  the  appearance  of  the  pile  on 
velvet.  These  villi  consist  of  cells  and  numerous  small 
branches  of  veins  called  capillaries,  and  they  also  have 
what  are  known  as  lacteals.  All  the  constituents,  ex- 
cepting the  fat,  pass  through  the  wall  of  the  small  capil- 
laries and  these  connect  with  the  portal  vein,  which  car- 
ries the  blood  to  the  liver  and  thence  to  the  right  side  of 
the  heart.  The  emulsified  fat  of  the  food  reaches  the 


JUDGING    DAIRY    CATTLE  79 

same  destination  by  a  slightly  different  course.  It  passes 
into  the  lacteals  that  are  contained  in  the  villi  mentioned 
and  these  join  a  long  tube  that  runs  beneath  the  spine  and 
finally  reaches  the  thoracic  duct,  which  also  receives  all 
the  fluid  coming  from  the  other  lymphatics  in  the  cow. 
The  thoracic  duct  empties  its  contents  about  the  region  of 
the  first  rib  into  a  great  vein  (the  anterior  vena  cava) 
which  opens  into  the  right  side  of  the  heart,  so  all  the 
digestible  constituents  of  the  food  are  now  in  the  blood 
and  have  reached  the  right  side  of  the  heart.  From  here 
the  blood  goes  to  the  lungs  to  be  purified  by  the  air  that 
is  breathed  in  and  then  it  again  goes  back  to  the  left  side 
of  the  heart  to  be  pumped  through  the  arteries  to  the 
various  portions  of  the  body.  Several  branches  run  to 
the  various  organs  of  the  body  but  that  which  goes  to  the 
mammary  gland  is  of  chief  interest  in  the  function  of 
making  milk.  The  aorta  runs  along  under  the  spinal 
column  and  finally  reaches  the  femoral  artery  which  is 
about  parallel  with  the  femur  or  thigh  bone.  This  throws 
off  a  branch  (prepubic)  which  again  branches  into  another 
(the  external  pubic)  and  this  again  after  it  passes  through 
the  inguinal  ring  divides  into  two  branches  (the  anterior 
or  subcutaneous  artery,  and  the  posterior  abdominal  or 
mammary  artery)  and  from  these  the  mammary  gland  re- 
ceives its  supply,  as  they  branch  into  all  the  regions  of  the 
udder. 

Following  the  blood  still  further,  it  passes  through  the 
udder  and  appears  outside  of  it  in  what  are  known  as  the 
milk  veins.  They  run  along  the  belly,  pass  into  the  body, 
and  finally  direct  the  blood  to  the  heart  again.  In  respect 
to  the  function  and  relations  of  the  organs  up  to  this  point, 
we  can  understand  that  the  stomach  and  its  accessories 
perform  the  greatest  amount  of  work  in  making  food  into 
blood,  while  the  lungs  purify  it,  and  the  heart  propels  it  to 
those  parts  that  are  in  most  need  of  it. 

131.  Function  of  the  Udder.  In  the  dairy  cow  the 
udder  is  an  important  organ,  for  it  directly  performs  the 
work  of  making  milk,  which  is  the  dairy  cow's  specialty. 


80  JUDGING    CATTLE 

With  the  exception  of  the  water,  the  udder  is  generally 
considered  to  produce  as  the  direct  product  of  it^  own 
action  all  the  constituents  of  the  milk.  The  casein,  the 
fat  and  the  milk  sugar  are  elaborated  in  the  udder,  the 
only  constituent  that  is  thought  not  to  undergo  any 
change  is  the  water  in  the  blood.  However,  it  is  from 
the  blood  that  the  milk  is  made,  for  the  action  of  the 
udder  is  to  so  change  all  the  constituents  that  the  milk 
distinctly  becomes  the  peculiar  product  of  the  udder. 

To  better  understand  the  construction  of  the  udder  let 
us  follow  the  course  of  the  small  opening  which  exists  at 
the  end  of  the  teat.  This  opening  at  the  upper  part  of 
the  teat  swells  into  a  cistern  or  milk  reservoir,  where  the 
milk  accumulates  to  a  degree  between  the  time  of  milking. 
The  milk  is  prevented  from  passing  out  of  this  cistern 
through  the  teat  by  a  small  muscle  (sphincter)  which  holds 
the  milk  in  the  udder  until  relaxed  by  the  stimulation  of 
milking.  From  this  cistern  a  canal  extends  further  into 
the  udder.  This  branches  many  times  and  at  the  end  of 
each  branch  there  is  a  cluster  (a  lobe)  of  tissue  very 
similar  to  a  bunch  of  grapes.  What  is  known  as  the  lobe 
is  similar  to  the  bunch,  the  lobule  resembling  one  grape, 
and  what  is  known  as  the  alveoli  the  seeds  of  the  grape. 
The  alveoli  are  lined  with  small  cells  in  which  the  milk  is 
made.  These  cells  produce  within  themselves  the  fat  pe- 
culiar to  milk  and  also  secrete  the  water,  salts,  etc.,  that 
enter  into  the  composition  of  milk.  The  milk  being  se- 
creted in  these  millions  of  small  cells,  which  compose  the 
udder,  passes  into  the  branches  that  lead  to  them,  and 
from  these  it  passes  into  the  main  branch  and  finally 
reaches  the  milk  cistern,  where  it  accumulates  until  milk- 
ing begins.  The  four  quarters  which  make  up  the  whole 
udder  are  each  constructed  in  the  way  indicated  and  they 
act  somewhat  independently  of  each  other. 


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JUDGING    DAIRY    CATTLE  81 

132,...  Nervous  System.  Besides  the  organs  performing 
the  work  of  digestion  and  secretion,  there  is  another 
feature  of  the  physiology  of  the  dairy  cow,  which  is  of 
equal  importance.  Reference  is  made  to  the  brain,  the 
spinal  cord,  and  the  numberless  nerves  connected  with  the 
nervous  system.  These  control  the  action  of  most  of  the 
organs  of  the  body  and  have  an  effective  influence  over  the 
amount  of  work  that  they  may  accomplish.  The  nervous 
system  is  represented  by  the  brain  and  the  spinal  cord 
with  its  branches.  The  spinal  cord  runs  through  the  verte- 
bra from  the  head  to  the  tail  and  sends  out  from  each 
vertebra  branches  that  connect  with  the  various  organs  of 
the  body.  The  feature  connected  with  the  nervous  system 
that  has  special  application  to  the  dairy  cow  is  that  of 
temperament.  More  study  has  been  given  this  in  the 
instance  of  men,  and  those  who  have  given  most  attention 
to  it  have  divided  their  temperament  into  four  classes — 
nervous,  lymphatic,  bilious  and  sanguinary.  In  cattle  the 
two  divisions,  nervous  and  lymphatic  are  most  in  evidence, 
and  they  are  very  markedly  characteristic  of  two  classes 
of  cattle,  dairy  stock  and  beef  animals.  In  an  animal  of 
nervous  temperament,  the  nervous  organization  is  strong 
and  well  developed.  Such  an  animal  is  able  to  stand  labor 
beyond  what  would  be  expected  of  it  from  its  physical 
appearance.  The  animal  of  lymphatic  temperament  is 
sluggish  in  disposition  and  inclined  to  fatten  or  become 
fleshy.  It  should  be  stated  that  the  common  conception 
of  nervous  temperament  is  not  the  same  as  that  which 
is  referred  to  here.  Generally  when  reference  is  made  to 
an  animal's  having  a  nervous  temperament  it  is  commonly 
supposed  to  mean  that  it  is  irritable  and  excitable  which 
actually  indicates  the  lack  of  nervous  control.  The  term 
as  properly  used  in  reference  to  dairy  cattle  means  an 
animal  that  is  full  of  nerves,  one  that  has  strong  nerves 
which  gives  tone  to  the  various  organs  of  the  body.  The 


82  JUDGING   CATTLE 

animal  of  nervous  temperament  is  one  that  is  sensitive  and 
active,  giving  all  regions  the  greatest  vitality  and  all  the 
organs  the  greatest  productive  powers. 

To  sum  up,  if  we  consider  a  cow  simply  as  a  machine  for 
making  milk,  we  find  that  the  food  is  manufactured  into 
blood  by  the  stomach  and  its  accessories  and  the  blood  in  a 
general  sense  is  made  into  milk  by  the  udder  so  that  the 
two  main  manufacturing  centers  of  the  dairy  cow  are  the 
stomach  and  the  udder,  and  it  is  around  these  that  what 
is  known  as  the  dairy  type  has  evolved  its  peculiarities. 
But  as  the  dairy  cow  is  more  than  a  machine,  as  she  has 
vitality  and  recuperative  power,  we  find  that  the  nervous 
system  as  expressed  in  the  nervous  temperament  is  what 
enables  her  to  maintain  her  enormous  productive  powers 
in  these  centers. 

133.  The  Dairy  Form.  It  will  be  understood  from  th^ 
previous  discussion  of  the  function  of  the  dairy  cow  that 
there  are  four  main  centers  of  activity  when  she  is  per- 
forming her  function;  the  digestive  system,  the  milk  se- 
creting system,  the  circulatory  system  and  the  nervous 
system.  And  it  is  because  of  extreme  activity  in  these 
centers  that  the  dairy  cow  inclines  towards  a  given  type. 
She  tends  to  become  wedge  shaped  and  lean  because  of  the 
unusual  activity  in  the  regions  mentioned.  Certain  por- 
tions of  her  organization  have  an  undue  amount  of  work 
which  tends  to  their  development  in  an  extreme  degree, 
while  the  other  portions  because  of  their  activity  and  lack 
of  nourishment  do  not  develop  to  the  fullest  degree ;  this 
results  in  the  instance  of  unusual  performers  in  a  type 
that  is  inclined  to  be  narrow  in  front  and  wide  and  deep 
behind.  While  it  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  a  cow, 
to  be  a  good  dairy  animal,  must  be  of  this  type  yet  because 
of  the  work  she  does,  most  of  them  tend  towards  it.  The 
relation  of  type  to  performance  has  been  the  subject  of  ex- 
periments by  Professor  Haecker,  reported  in  Bulletin  67 
of  the  Minnesota  Experiment  Station.  When  a  cow  is 
milking  freely  if  she  possesses  good  dairy  qualities  there 
is  likely  to  be  a  lean  appearance  over  every  region  of  the 


Jersey  cow  BOSNIAN'S  ANNA  Imp.  Champion  of  the  breed  at  the 
National  Dairy  Show  in  1910.  Shown  by  C.  I.  Hudson,  East  Nor- 
wich, N.  Y. 


DESCRIPTION   OF   JERSEY  CATTLE. 

»N  THE  establishment  of  this  breed  on  the  island,  from  which  it  takes  its 
name,  the  work  was  conducted  very  systematically  to  produce  uniformity 
of  type  and  bovine  beauty.  In  establishing  the  ideal,  two  representative  ani- 
mals were  chosen  for  excellence  and  the  scale  of  points  adopted  was  made  a 
combination  of  these.  The  early  breeders  adhered  very  closely  to  color,  mark- 
ings and  type  but  the  modern  breeder  has  lessened  the  attention  towards  these 
by  breeding  more  strictly  for  utility  as  a  butter  producer.  The  foundation 
stock  for  the  Jersey  represented  chiefly  by  those  on  the  island  at  the  present 
time  are  noted  especially  for  the  deerlike  appearance  of  their  heads,  fine,  slim 
necks,  light  shoulders,  deep  though  narrow  forequarters,  large  bodies  with 
abundant  capacity,  lean  hind  quarters  and  more  particularly  for  the  beautiful 
appearance  of  the  udder  in  the  fullness  and  placing  of  the  teats.  Since  the 
introduction  of  a  system  of  testing,  the  indications  which  give  power  of  pro- 
duction have  overbalanced  to  some  degree  the  fine  discriminations  which 
existed  as  to  the  general  color  and  markings,  of  nose,  tongue  and  switch. 
The  modern  type  may  be  of  broken  color,  or  lack  in^the  fancy  points  referred 
to  but  it  has  the  ability  for  larger  butter  production  more  intensified,  as  the 
frame  is  inclined  to  show  more  strength  and  the  general  form  more  ruggedness 
of  constitution.  While  the  type  should  show 'the  angular  form  which  is  con- 
ducive to  the  highest  butter  production,  yet  those  features  which  contribute 
to  beauty,  the  head  and  neck,  should  not  be  wholly  without  the  graceful  lines 
so  characteristic  of  the  breed.  See  scale  of  points,  page  97. 


Guernsey  cow  GLENCOE'S  BOPEEP.  Champion  cow  of  her  breed  at 
the  National  Dairy  $how  in  1911.  Shown  by  W.  W.  Marsh,  Waterloo, 
Iowa. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   GUERNSEY    CATTLE. 

"PHE  GUERNSEY  cattle  coming  from  the  island  of  that  name  hava  not  had 
attached  to  them  any  peculiar  requirements  as  to  the  type  or  markings, 
as  these  have  been  allowed  to  evolve  themselves  as  the  breed  developed  under 
the  patronage  of  the  Royal  Agricultural  Society  of  the  island.  Being  carefully 
protected  from  the  infusions  of  blood  from  foreign  sources  they  have  become 
of  a  distinct  type  and  their  markings  and  color  have  necessarily  assumed 
uniformity.  The  greatest  production  of  butter  has  been  the  aim  and  the 
evolution  of  the  breed  and  this  has  evolved  the  type  of  large  capacity,  neces- 
sarily strong  in  frame  without  any  encouragement  being  given  to  the  finer 
lines  of  beauty.  The  color  is  usually  some  shade  of  fawn  with  white  mark- 
ings, but  this  is  considered  subordinate  to  the  color  of  the  skin,  which  should 
be  of  a  rich  orange  tinge.  The  head  in  all  its  lineaments  should  show  refine- 
ment, the  nostril  and  mouth  large,  the  face  slightly  dished  and  clearly  chiseled, 
the  eye  large  and  full  with  the  top  of  the  head  surmounted  by  delicate  horns. 
The  juncture  of  the  head  and  neck  should  be  trim  and  light  and  the  latter 
slim.  A  sharp  shoulder  should  run  into  a  deep  chest  and  the  latter  should 
swell  into  a  roomy  barrel.  The  back  should  be  sharp  and  straight  and  the 
hind  quarters  completely  free  from  fleshiness  with  a  thin  thigh.  The  udder 
Is  a  leading  consideration  and  it  should  be  long  with  full,  circular  form  and 
teats  large  and  the  milk  veins  prominent,  branched  and  tortuous.  See  the 
elaborate  official  scale  of  points,  page  98. 


JUDGING    DAIRY    CATTLE  83 

bocly  showing  that  she  is  an  animal  of  nervous  organiza- 
tion and  further  that  she  utilizes  all  her  foods  for  the 
making  of  milk  and  not  for  the  filling  out  of  her  form. 

In  a  good  dairy  cow  there  is  a  feminine  look  that  is  very 
characteristic.  There  is  no  thickening  of  the  neck,  or  a 
crest  on  the  neck,  or  any  heaviness  of  the  fore  quarters 
indicating  the  slightest  masculinity,  but  all  of  these  parts 
are  light,  clean  cut  and  in  every  way  indicative  of  feminine 
character.  The  size  of  the  dairy  cow  comes  into  the  dis- 
cussion of  type.  This  has  something  to  do  with  her  per- 
formance, but  there  is  no  distinct  advantage  in  having  a 
cow  very  large  if  there  is  not  with  it  characteristics  which 
indicate  enlarged  dairy  qualities. 

134.  Skin— Soft,  Fine.     The  skin  should  be  soft  and 
comparatively  thin.     It  is  a  point  of  much  value  to  dis- 
criminate against  a  thin,  papery  skin,  as  such  is  usually 
associated  with  the  weakness  of  constitution.     The  skin 
should  be  unctuous,  or  oily  to  the  touch,  giving  the  im- 
pression that  butter  might  be  squeezed  out  of  it.     When 
the  secretions  of  the  skin  are  healthy  it  may  be  expected 
that  the  secretions  in  the  rest  of  the  body  are  going  on 
vigorously.     The  skin  lining  the  ear  should  be  of  a  golden 
color  and  so  should  that  in  the  region  of  the  udder,  inside 
the  thighs,  around  the  eyes,  at  the  root  of  the  tail  and 
below  any  spots  of  white  hair. 

135.  Hair — Silky,  Fine.    The  hair  covering  all  the  body 
should  be  short,   soft   and  silky.     The  udder   especially 
should  be  covered  with  hair  of  this  character,  and  not  with 
long,  coarse  hair,  as  is  often  observed  on  poorly  milking 
animals.     Coarse,  harsh  hair  is  generally  an  indication  of 
lack  of  refinement  and  an  evidence  of  unthriftiness. 

136.  Bone — Fine  Texture.    The  dairy  cow  in  her  daily 
life  needs  but  sufficient  bane  to  maintain  her  form.     As  a 
rule  the  milking  cows  are  loose  in  form  but  possessed  of 
fine   quality.     There   should   not    be   any   appearance   of 
weakness  due  to  fineness,  yet  the  f^rm  should  not  be  coarse 
and   heavy. 


84  JUDGING  CATTLE 

137.  Head — Feminine,  Lean,  Long.    A  very  essential 
quality  is  for  the  head  to  have  a  feminine  appearance. 
The  ideal  head  of  a  cow  is  devoid  of  the  heaviness  and 
coarseness  characteristic  of  the  bull.     Just  as  milk  giving 
is  a  peculiar  trait  of  the  cow  so  is  fineness  in  the  head. 
The  face   should  be  long  and   especially  lean  with  the 
features  very  distinct.     The  eye  should  be  full,  mild  and 
bright,  and  more  or  less  active.     A  kindly  disposition  is 
reflected  by  a  mild  eye,  while  one  that  is  bright  is  in- 
dicative of  vigorous  circulation  and  good  health.     Large, 
dilated  nostrils  permitting  easy   entrance  of  air  to  the 
lungs,  with  prominent  windpipe,   are  usually  associated 
with  depth  of  chest  and  lung  capacity.     In  size  the  ear 
should  be  medium,  possessed  of  fine  quality,  and  a  rich 
orange  color  inside.     The  strong  horn  of  the  bull  is  not 
desirable,  but  rather  one  that  is  small  and  fine  in  quality. 
The  poll  should  be  prominent,  with  the  forehead  broad 
and   full,   showing   strong   development   of  brain. 

138.  Neck — Thin.     A  slim,  fine  neck  carrying  the  head 
gracefully  is  a  characteristic  that  adds  much  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  a  dairy  cow.     The  fullness  and  heaviness  here 
which  characterizes  the  beef  animal  should  be  completely 
absent.     The  neck  must  be  thin  and  join  an  equally  thin 
and  bare  shoulder,  with  the  withers  sharp  but  yet  quite 
open.     The  performing  powers  of  the  dairy  cow  depend 
greatly  on  the  depth  and  volume  of  the  barrel.     It  has 
been  noted  the  important  part  that  the  heart,  lungs  and 
stomach  perform  in  the  work  of  a  dairy  cow,  so  that  the 
necessity  of  having  a  barrel  that  will  afford  ample  room 
for  the  work  of  these  will  be  readily  apparent.     The  ribs 
should  be  long  to  supply  storage  capacity  for  food.     The 
backbone  should  be  prominent  and  strong,  for  through  it 
and  under  it  run  two  of  the  largest  channels,  representing 
two  of  the  most  vital  systems  of  the  body,  the  nervous 
and  the  circulatory. 

139.  Hind  Quarter — Lean,  Elevated.    As  a  whole,  the 
hind  quarter  in  a  deep  milking  cow  is  strikingly  free  from 
fleshiness,  and  there  is  usually  a  slight  raise  in  the  quarter 


JUDGING     DAIRY    CATTLE  OO 

from  the  loin  to  the  attachment  of  the  tail.  Some  think 
this  conformation  indicates  vigor,  but  a  more  reasonable 
view  of  the  merit  of  the  point  asserts  that  it  is  to  some 
extent  unfavorable  for  the  premature  birth  of  calves. 

140.  Hips — Sharp,  Wide  Apart.     The  hip  bones  should 
be  prominent,  sharp  and  wide  apart,  giving  plenty  of  room 
to  the  generative  organs.     From  the  point  of  the  hip  to 
the  end  of  the  tail  there  should  be  a  marked  hollow  or 
shrinkage,  due  to  the  absence  of  the  flesh,  a  condition 
characteristic  of  heavy  performers  when  in  full  milk. 

141.  Thigh — Thin,  In-curving.  The  thigh,  for  the  same 
reason  should  be  thin  and  retreating  and  possessed  of 
length.     A  thin   thigh,   decidedly   in-curving   is   a   note- 
worthy feature.     Attention  has  been  drawn  to  the  use  of 
the  tail  as  a  plumb  line  to  determine  the  degree  to  which 
the  thigh  curves. 

142.  Escutcheon — High,   Wide,    Spreading.     Viewing 
the  thighs  and  the  region  of  the  cow  above  the  udder,  it 
will  be  observed  that  on  this  part  the  hair  runs  in  the 
opposite  direction  from  that  to  which  it  inclines  on  the 
other  parts  of  the  body.     Where  it  does  this,  it  is  known 
as  the  escutcheon,  to  which  attention  was  first  directed  by 
Guenon.     It  is  supposed  that  the  reason  of  this  hair  grow- 
ing in  the  direction  mentioned  is  due  to  the  artery  which 
passes  this  part.     The  artery  supplying  the  udder  with 
blood  also  nourishes  the  skin  on  which  the  escutcheon 
grows.    Many  have  the  idea  that  Guenon  considered  this 
the   only   point   of  value   in   determining   the   worth   of 
a  cow.     The  fact  is  that  he  considered  it  only  one  of  ten 
to  be  included  in  the  merits  of  a  first-class  dairy  cow. 
There  is  some  reason  for  considering  the  escutcheon  as  it 
is  undoubtedly  to  a  degree  an  index  of  the  quantity  of 
blood  received  by  the  udder,  for  the  same  reason  that 
the  milk  veins  are  of  value  as  they  indicate  the  quantity  of 
blood  that  leaves  the  udder.     In  1878  a  commission  was 
appointed  by  the  Governor  of  Pennsylvania  to  inquire  into 
the  reliability  of  this  point,  and  they  reported  in  its  favor. 


86  JUDGING    CATTLE 

It  is  unnecessary  to  go  into  the  details  of  the  various 
classes  of  escutcheons  as  Guenon  enumerates  eight  classes 
and  eight  orders  or,  in  other  words,  eight  different  shapes 
and  eight  different  sizes.  He  claimed  that  the  shape  was 
indicative  of  the  quantity  and  the  size  was  an  index  of  the 
duration  of  the  milk  flow.  The  broader  it  extends  over 
the  thigh  and  the  greater  the  length  of  it  the  better  the 
escutcheon  is  considered  to  be.  Guenon  believed  that  the 
thigh  escutcheon  indicated  the  quantity  of  milk  the  cow 
gave,  while  the  upper  portion  or  vertical  escutcheon  the 
length  of  time  she  would  milk,  and  with  these  he  con- 
sidered the  feel  of  the  skin,  the  character  of  the  hair, 
and  the  color  of  the  skin  as  indicative  of  the  quality  of 
the  milk.  "With  these  features  he  also  associated  "the 
thigh  ovals"  on  the  udder  just  above  the  hind  teats,  for 
in  his  view  an  escutcheon  was  not  considered  of  a  high 
order  without  them. 

143.  Udder — Long,  Plastic.     When  empty  the  udder 
should  nearly  lose  its  form  and  appear  to  consist  of  folds 
of  soft,  pliable  and  elastic  skin.     The  hind  quarter  should 
be  full  behind  and  attached  high,  while  the  fore  quarter 
should  extend  far  forward.     Length  in  the  udder  is  im- 
portant, as  it  gives  a  long  line  of  absorption.     It  should 
be  fully  thirty  inches  long  from  the  attachment  at  the 
back  to  where  it  joins  the  belly.  •  It  is  to  be  remembered 
that  the   udder  not   only  secretes  milk  from  the   blood 
and  hence  is  an  important  organ,  but  it  is  also  a  receptacle 
for  holding  the  milk.     In  Bulletin  62  issued  by  Purdue 
University,    Professor   Plumb    presents   some   instructive 
studies  of  this  important  organ. 

144.  Teats— Evenly    Placed.      These    should    be    just 
large  enough  to  fill  the  hand  and  yield  milk  easily  but 
never  leak.     They  should  be  evenly  placed,  standing  at 
least  six  inches  apart  in  all  directions  when  the  udder  is 
full. 

145.  Milk  Veins — Large,  Branching.     The  milk  veins 
are  considered  important  as  they  indicate  the  amount  of 
blood  that  has  passed  through  the  udder.     In  a  cow  that 


JUDGING    DAIBY    CATTLE  87 

has  recently  dropped  her  calf  they  should  be  very  prom- 
inent and  full  and  branched.  The  milk  wells  through 
which  the  veins  pass  into  the  body  of  the  cow  are  in- 
dicative of  the  size  of  the  milk  veins  and  consequently 
they  should  receive  consideration,  especially  when  the 
cow  is  dry,  for  at  that  time  the  milk  veins  themselves  are 
not  in  evidence. 

SCALE  OF  FOISTS  FOB  DAIBY  CATTLE — COW.         *J 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE!  || 

Form,  inclined  to  be  wedge  shaped 6 

Quality,  hair  fine,  soft;  skin,  mellow,  loose,  medium 

thickness;  secretion  yellow;  bone  clean,  fine 6 

Temperament,  nervous,  indicated  by  lean  appearance 

when  in  milk   6 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,  clean  cut;  mouth  large;  nostrils  large 1 

Eyes,  large,  bright,  full,  mild 1 

Face,  lean,  long,  quiet  expression   1 

Forehead,  broad    1 

Ears,  medium  size,  yellow  inside,  fine  texture 1 

Horns,  fine  texture,  waxy 1 

Neck,  fine,  medium  length,  throat  clean,  light  dewlap.  1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Withers,    lean,   thin    1 

Shoulders,    light,    oblique    2 

Legs,  straight,  short;   shank  fine, 2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  low,  girth  large  with  full  fore  flank 10 

Barrel,  ribs  broad,  long,  wide  apart;  large  stomach.  .  .  10 

Back,  lean  straight,  open  jointed 2 

Loin,  broad    2 

Navel,  large 2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  far  apart,  level 2 

Rump,  long,  wide 2 

Pin  Bones  or  Thurls,  high,  wide  apart 1 

Tail,  long,  slim ;  fine  hair  in  switch 1 

Thighs,  thin,  long 4 

Escutcheon,  spreading  over  thighs,  extending  high  and 

wide;  large  thigh  ovals 2 

Udder,  long,  attached  high  and  full  behind,  extending 

far  in  front  and  full,  flexible;  quarters  even  and  free 

from  fleshiness   20 

Teats,  large,  evenly  placed 5 

Mammary  Veins,  large,  long,  tortuous,  branched  with 

double  extension;  large  and  numerous  milk  wells.  5 

Legs,  straight;  shank  fine ^  2 

Total .100 


JUDGING    CATTLE 


IV.     JUDGING    DAIRY    BULLS. 


146.  Judging  Dairy  Bulls.  In  judging  dairy  bulls 
many  points  may  be  noted  that  they  have  in  common 
with  dairy  cows,  especially  features  of  type,  but  it  is  a 
much  more  difficult  task  to  judge  between  those  of  this 
sex  than  it  is  to  discriminate  between  developed  cows. 

147. — Purity  of  Breeding.  It  seems  necessary  to  say 
that  the  first  requirement  in  the  dairy  bull,  as  in  the  in- 
stance of  all  other  stock  sires,  is  purity  of  breeding.  The 
sire  should  meet  all  the  requirements  demanded  of  a  pure- 
bred animal  for  registration.  In  addition  the  dairy  sire 
should  have  the  characteristics  which  are  called  for  by 
the  scale  of  points  for  the  breed  represented. 

148,  Uniformity  of  Breeding.     To  secure  the  greatest 
prepotency  in  a  sire,  the  breeding  for  some  generations, 
back  must  show  a  uniformity  in  the  type  and  characteris- 
tics of  the  ancestry.    When  the  animals  mentioned  in  a 
pedigree  lack  uniformity,  or  have  been  dissimilar  in  type 
and  characteristics,  it  is  not  probable  that  the  progeny 
will  show  that  uniformity  which  every  breeder  desires  to 
see  in  the  herd. 

149.  Pedigree  Based  on  Performance.    The  most  valu- 
able characteristic  relating  to  the  pedigree  of  a  dairy  bull 
is  the  number  and  the  merit  of  the  records  that  have  been 
made  by  the  cows  that  are  named  in  it.     This  feature  is 
not  usually  considered  in  the  show  ring,  though  it  should 
be,  as  it  has  a  marked  influence  on  the  worth  of  a  dairy 
sire.     The  most  important  feature  of  the  pedigree  of  a 
dairy  sire  is  the  degree  to  which  his  dam  was  a  good 
dairy  cow,  and  in  a  lessening  degree  the  records  of  those 
that  preceded  her.     Next  in  importance   to   this  is  the 
number  and  the  merit  of  the  performances  of  the  cows 
that  are  mentioned  in  the  sires'  line.     Not  only  should 
the   dams   in   the   pedigrees   have    good   records   as   per- 
formers,  but   the   males   should   also   be    getters   of  per- 
formers.   A  bull  that  has  breeding  of  high  order  based  on 


JUDGING    DAIRY    CATTLE  89 

performance,  is  as  certain  as  things  can  be  to  sire  su- 
perior stock,  provided  he  is  satisfactory  as  an  individual. 

150.  Qualities  Associated  with  Individuality.    Impres- 
sive power  or  prepotency  and  constitution  are  indicated 
to  a  certain  extent  by  the  individual.    The  first  mentioned 
may  be  estimated  with  some  certainty  by  the  masculine 
appearance  of  the  bull  in  the  head,  horn,  and  crest ;  while 
the  constitution  is  reflected  by  the  depth  of  chest,  the 
size  of  the  navel  and  the  general  appearance  of  the  hair, 
hide,  and  eye,  as  these  are  closely  asso-ciated  with  thrift 
and  vigor.    The  type  in  other  respects  should  be  that  out- 
lined for  the  dairy  cow.     A  very  common  defect  in  the 
form  of  the  dairy  bull  is  roundness  of  the  hips  and  undue 
fullness  of  the  thighs,  traceable  to  heaviness  of  flesh  in 
these  regions. 

The  hip  bones  and  the  hocks  should  be  prominent  and 
between  these  points  there  should  be  a  marked  falling 
away  due  to  the  absence  of  any  tendency  towards  fatness 
in  this  region.  The  undeveloped  teats  should  be  large 
and  well  placed  and  the  navel  should  be  prominent.  The 
skin,  especially  where  it  gathers  in  loose  folds  between 
the  thighs  and  at  other  points,  should  be  soft,  pliable  and 
rich  in  color.  All  points  should  show  much  more  open- 
ness and  relaxation  than  is  customary  in  beef  animals,  for 
this  characteristic  appears  to  be  prevalent  among  deep 
milking  types. 

151.  Judging   Calves.     In   the    selection   of  the   best 
calves  the  merit  of  the  dam  as  a  dairy  cow  is  a  valuable 
guide  but  it  is  not  a  point  that  is  usually  employed  in 
show  yard  judging.     In  reference  to  the  form  of  heifer 
calves  the  type  of  the  typical  dairy  cow  in  miniature  is 
the  most  desirable.     The  long  face,  the  thin  neck,  light 
shoulder,  sharp  withers,  deep  chest,  large  capacious  body, 
wide,  long  and  thin  rump,  thin  thighs,  mellow  hide  of 
red  color  and  soft  hair  should  all  be  in  evidence.     The 
folds  of  skin  in  the  udder  regions  should  be  loose  and 
pliable.     The  teats  should  not  be  bunched  together  but 


90  JUDGING   CATTLE 

wide  apart  and  evenly  placed.  It  is  desirable  to  have  the 
navel  of  such  size  that  it  may  be  easily  noticed,  and  the 
form  in  every  part  should  have  the  open  and  relaxed 
condition  referred  to  in  discussing  developed  cows.  The 
bull  calf  differs  in  no  marked  degree  from  the  heifer  calf 
until  it  approaches  the  age  of  one  year  when  the  sex 
characteristics  have  developed  to  a  noticeable  extent 


V.      OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   CATTLE, 
ABERDEEN  ANGUS  CATTLE. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  AMERICAN 
ABERDEEN    ANGUS    ASSOCIATION — BULL.  Q 

Color — Black.  White  is  objectionable,  except  on  the  under- 
line behind  the  navel,  and  there  only  to  a  moderate 
extent;  a  white  cod  is  most  undesirable 3 

Head— Forehead  broad;  face  slightly  prominent,  and  taper- 
ing toward  the  nose;  muzzle  fine;  nostrils  wide  and 
open;  distance  from  eyes  to  nostrils  of  moderate 
length;  eyes  mild,  full  and  expressive,  indicative  of 
good  disposition;  ears  of  good  medium  size;  well  set 
and  well  covered  with  hair;  poll  well  defined,  and 
without  any  appearance  of  horns  or  scurs;  jaws  clean.  10 

Throat — Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose  flesh  un- 
derneath    3 

Neck — Of  medium  length,  muscular,  witih  moderate  crest 
(which  increases  with  age),  spreading  out  to  meet  the 
the  shoulders,  with  full  neck  vein 3 

Shoulders — Moderately  oblique,  well  covered  on  the  blades 
and  tap;  with  vertebra  or  backbone  slightly  above  the 
scapula  or  shoulder  blades,  which  should  be  moderate- 
ly broad 6 

Chest — Wide  and  deep,  also  round  and  full  just  back  of 

elbows  10 

Brisket — Deep  and  moderately  projecting  from  between  the 

legs,  and  proportionately  covered  with  flesh  and  fat.  .  4 

Ribs — Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and  deep, 

neatly  joined  to  the  crops  and  loins 8 

Back — Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks;  loins 
strong;  ihook  bones  moderate  in  width,  not  prominent 
and  well  covered;  rumps  long,  full,  level  and  rounded 
neatly  into  hind  quarters 10 

Hind  Quarters — Deep  and  full;  thighs  thick  and  muscular, 
and  in  proportion  to  hind  quarters;  twist  filled  out 
well  in  its  "seam"  so  as  to  form  an  even  wide  plane 
between  thighs  8 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOB    CATTLE  91 

ABERDEEN    ANGUS    CATTLE.  +? 

BULL — CONTINUED.  o 

Tail — Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a  line  with 

the  back  and  hanging  at  right  angles  to  it 3 

Underline — Straight,  as  nearly  as  possible;  flank,  deep  and 

full 4 

Legs — Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed,  hind  legs  slight- 
ly inclined  forward  below  the  hocks;  forearm  muscu- 
lar; bones  fine  and  clean  4 

Flesh — Even  and  without  patchiness 4 

Skin — Of  moderate  thickness  and  mellow  touch,  abundantly 
covered  with  thick  soft  hair.  (Much  of  the  thrifti- 
ness,  feeding  properties,  and  value  of  the  animal  de- 
pend upon  this  quality,  which  is  of  great  weight  in  the 
grazier's  and  butcher's  judgment.  A  good  "touch"  will 
compensate  for  some  deficiencies  of  form.  Nothing  can 
compensate  for  a  skin  hard  and  stiff.  In  raising  the 
skin  from  the  body  it  should  have  a  substantial,  soft, 
flexible  feeling,  and  when  beneath  the  outspread  hand 
it  should  move  easily  as  though  resting  on  a  soft  cellu- 
lar substance,  which  however  becomes  firmer  as  the 
animal  ripens.  A  thin  papery  skin  is  objectionable, 
especially  in  a  cold  climate) 10 

General  Appearance — Elegant,  well  bred  and  masculine. 

The  walk  square,  the  step  quick,  and  the  head  up.  ...  10 

Total 100 

When  bulls  are  exhibited  with  their  progeny  in  a  separate 
class,  add  25  counts  for  progeny. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  AMERICAN  •§ 

ABERDEEN    ANGUS    ASSOCIATION — COW.  o 

Color — Black.  White  is  objectionable,  except  on  the  under- 
line behind  the  navel  and  there  only  to  a  moderate 
extent  2 

Head — Forehead  moderately  broad  and  slightly  indented; 
tapering  toward  the  nose;  muzzle  fine;  nostrils  wide 
and  open;  distance  from  eyes  to  nostrils  of  moderate 
length;  eyes  full,  bright  and  expressive,  indicative  of 
good  disposition;  ears  large,  slightly  rising  upward, 
and  well  furnished  with  hair;  poll  well  defined,  and 
without  any  appearance  of  horns  or  scurs;  jaws  clean.  10 

Throat — Clean,  without  any  development  of  loose  flesih  un- 
derneath   3 

Neck — Of  medium  length,  spreading  out  to  meet  the  shoul- 
ders, with  full  neck  vein 3 

Shoulders — Moderately  oblique,  well  covered  on  the  blades 
and  top;  with  vertebra  or  backbone  slightly  above  the 
scapula  or  shoulder  blades,  which  should  be  mod- 
erately broad 6 

Chest — Wide  and  deep;  round  and  full  just  back  of  el- 
bows    10 

Brisket — Deep  and  moderately  projecting  from  between  the 

legs,  and  proportionately  covered  with  flesh  and  fat.  .  4 


92  JUDGING  CATTLE 

ABERDEEN  ANGUS  CATTLE,  | 

COW CONTINUED. 

(j 

Ribs — Well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  arched  and  deep, 

neatly  joined  to  the  crops  and  loins 8 

Back — Broad  and  straight  from  crops  to  hooks;  loins 
strong;  hook  bones  moderate  in  width,  not  prominent, 
and  well  covered;  rumps  long,  full,  level  and  rounded 
neatly  into  hind  quarters 10 

Hind  Quarters — Deep  and  full;  thighs  thick  and  muscular, 
and  in  proportion  to  hind  quarters;  twist  filled  out 
well  in  its  "seam"  so  as  to  form,  an  even  wide  plane 
between  thighs  8 

Tail — Fine,  coming  neatly  out  of  the  body  on  a  line  with 

the  back  and  hanging  at  right  angles  to  it 3 

Udder — Not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the 
body  and  well  up  behind;  teats  squarely  placed,  well 
apart  and  of  good  size 8 

Underline — Straight,  as  nearly  as  possible,  flank  deep  and 

full  4 

Legs — Short,  straight  and  squarely  placed;  hind  legs  slight- 
ly inclined  forward  below  the  hocks;  fore  arm  muscu- 
lar; bones  fine  and  clean 3 

Flesh — Even  and  without  patchiness 3 

Skin — Of  moderate  thickness  and  mellow  touch,  abundantly 
covered  with  thick,  soft  hair.  (Much  of  the  thrifti- 
ness,  feeding  properties  and  value  of  the  animal  de- 
pend upon  this  quality,  which  is  of  great  weight  in 
the  grazier's  and  butcher's  judgment.  A  good  "touch" 
will  compensate  for  some  deficiencies  of  form.  Noth- 
ing can  compensate  for  a  skin  'hard  and  stiff.  In  rais- 
ing the  skin  from  the  body  it  should  have  a  substan- 
tial, soft,  flexible  feeling,  and  when  beneath  the  out- 
spread hand  it  should  move  easily,  as  though  resting 
on  a  soft,  cellular  substance,  which,  however,  becomes 
firmer  as  the  animal  ripens.  A  thin,  papery  skin  is 
objectionable,  especially  in  a  cold  climate) 10 

General  Appearance — Elegant,  well  bred  and  feminine.  The 

walk  square,  tlhe  step  quick,  and  the  head  up 5 

Total 100 

In  judging  heifers  omit  No.  12,  and  add  3  counts  to  "Flesh" 
and  5  counts  to  No.  17,  in  the  order  named  above. 


DEVON  CATTLE. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  DEVON  BULL ADOPTED  BY  DEVON 

CATTLE  BREEDERS  SOCIETY,  ENGLAND,  1896. 

Registered  pedigree. 

Head  masculine,  forehead  broad,  tapering  towards  the  nose, 
which  should  be  flesh-colored;  nostrils  high  and  open,  muzzle 
broad;  eyes  full  and  placid;  ears  medium  size  and  thickness, 
fringed  with  hair;  horns  growing  at  right  angles  from  the  head 
or  slightly  elevated;  stout  and  waxy  at  the  base,  tipped  with 
a  darker  shade. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOB    CATTLE  03 

Cheek  full  and  broad  at  the  root  of  the  tongue.     Throat 


Neck  of  medium  length  and  muscular,  growing  from  the 
head  to  the  shoulders  and  spreading  out  to  meet  them. 

Withers  fine,  shoulders  flat  sloping  and  well  covered. 

Chest  deep,  broad  and  somewhat  circular  in  character. 

Ribs  well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep  and 
fully  developed. 

Back  straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on 
of  tail,  loins  broad  and  full,  hips  of  medium  width  and  on  a 
level  with  the  back. 

Rumps  moderately  long,  thick  and  square. 

Hind  quarters  deep,  thick  and  square. 

Tail,  thick  at  the  root,  and  tapering  with  a  brush  of  strong 
hair,  reaching  to  the  hocks  and  hanging  at  right  angles  with 
the  back. 

The  underline  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  top. 

Arms  and  thighs  muscular. 

Legs  straight  and  squarely  placed  when  viewed  from  behind, 
not  to  cross  or  sweep  when  walking. 

Skin  moderately  thick  and  meMow.  covered  with  an  abundant 
coat  of  rich  mossy  hair  of  a  red  color;  a  little  white  in  front 
of  the  purse  is  admissible;  but  it  should  not  extend  beyond 
the  navel  forward,  on  the  outside  of  the  flanks,  or  any  other 
part  of  the  limbs  or  body. 

STAXDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOE  DEVON  COW  —  ADOPTED  BY  DEVON 
CATTLE  BREEDERS  SOCIETY,  ENGLAND,  1896. 

Registered  pedigree. 

Head,  moderately  long,  with  a  broad  indented  forehead, 
tapering  considerably  towards  the  nostrils;  the  nose  of  a 
creamy  white,  the  nostrils  high  and  open,  the  jaws  clean,  the 
eye  bright,  lively  and  prominent;  throat*  clean,  ears  thin,  the 
expression  being  gentle  and  intelligent;  horns  matching,  long, 
spreading  and  gracefully  turned  up  of  a  waxy  color  tipped 
with  a  darker  shade. 

N-^ck  of  medium  length,  growing  from  the  head  to  the  shoul- 
ders, and  spreading  out  to  meet  them. 

Withers  fine,  shoulders  flat,  sloping  and  well  covered. 

Ribs  well  sprung  from  the  backbone,  nicely  arched,  deep 
and  fully  developed. 

Back  straight  and  level  from  the  withers  to  the  setting  on 
of  the  tail,  loins  broad  and  full,  hips  of  medium  width  and  on 
a  level  with  the  back. 

Rumps  moderately  long  and  level. 

Hind  quarters,  deep,  thick  and  square. 

Udder  not  fleshy,  coming  well  forward  in  line  with  the  belly 
and  well  up  behind;  teats  moderately  large  and  squarely 
placed. 

Tail  thick  at  the  root  and  tapering,  with  a  brush  of  strong 
hair  reaching  the  hocks  and  hanging  at  right  angles  with  the 
back. 

The  underline  as  nearly  as  possible  parallel  with  the  top. 


94  JUDGING    CATTLE 

Legs  straight,  squarely  placed,  when  view  from  behind, 
not  to  cross  or  sweep  w'hen  walking. 

Skin  moderately  thick  and  mellow,  covered  with  an  abun- 
dant coat  of  rich  mossy  hair  of  a  red  color;  white  about  the 
udder  is  admissible,  but  it  should  not  extend  beyond  the  navel 
forward,  on  the  outside  of  flanks  or  any  other  part  of  the 
limbs  or  body. 

HOLSTEINxFRESIAN  CATTLE. 

SCALE    OF   POINTS    PUBLISHED    IN    ADVANCED  -2 

REGISTRY,    VOL.    11,    1889 — BULL. 

Head — Showing  full  vigor,  elegant  in  contour 2 

Forehead — Broad  between  the  eyes,  dishing 2 

Face — Contour  graceful,  especially  under  the  eyes,  medium 

in  length,  broad  muzzle 2 

Ear — Of  medium  size,  fine,  covered  with  soft  hair l 

Eyes — Moderately  large,  full  and  bright 2 

Horns — Medium  in  size,  fine  in  texture,  short,  oval,  inclin- 
ing   forward     2 

Neck — Neatly   joined   to   head   and   shoulders,   nearly  free 

from  dewlap,  good  length,  proud  in  bearing 5 

Shoulders — Of  medium  height,  well  rounded  and  even  over 

top    4 

Chest — Low,  deep  and  full    8 

Crops — Full  and  level  with  shoulders 4 

Chine — Straight,  broadly  developed  and  open 3 

Karrel — Well   rounded   and   large   abdomen 6 

Lcins  and  Hip — Broad,  full,  long  and  level 5 

Rump — High,  long,  broad  and  level 5 

Thurl — High,  with  great  width 4 

Quarters — Long,  straight  behind  and  full  at  sides    5 

Flanks — Deep  and   hill    2 

Legs — Shcrt,  clean,  tapering,  with  strong  arm,  with  posi- 
tion  firm,   wide   apart;    feet   of   medium   size,    round, 

solid  and  deep   6 

Tail — Reaching  to  hock  or  below,  large  at  setting,  taper- 
ing to  a  full  switch   2 

Hair  and  Handling — Fine,  soft  and  mellow,  skin  of  mod- 
erate thickress,  secretions  oily  and  of  rich  brown  or 

yellow   cclor    10 

Mammary   Veins — Lon^.    large,   branched,    with   extensions 

entering   large    orifices    10 

Rudimentary  Teats — Not  less  than  four,  large,  well  spread  2 

Escutcheon — Large  and   fine  development    8 


Total 100 

A  bull  that  has  from  three  to  five  of  'his  progeny  in  Ad- 
vanced Register  shall  be  credited  with  five  points,  in  excess 
of  what  he  may  scale  in  structure. 

A  bull  that  has  five  or  more  of  his  progeny  in  Advanced 
Register  shall  be  credited  with  ten  points,  in  excess  of  what 
he  may  scale  in  structure. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOB    CATTLE  95 

No  bu.ll  shall  be  received  to  Advanced  Registry  who  does 
not  scale  80  points. 

No  bull  shall  be  received  to  Advanced  Registry  that  in  the 
judgment  of  the  inspectors  will  not  reach  a  minimum  weight 
of  1,800  in  good  flesh  at  full  age. 


SCALE   OF   POINTS    PUBLISHED    IN   ADVANCED  *> 

BEGISTBY,  VOL.   11,    1889 COW.  § 

Head — Decidedly    feminine    in    appearance,    comparatively 

long  from  eyes  to  base  of  horns,  fine  in  contour 2 

Forehead — Broad  between  the  eyes,  dishing    2 

Pace — Contour    fine,    especially    under    the    eyes,    showing 

facial  veins,  length  medium,  broad  muzzle 2 

Ears — Of  medium  size,  fine,  covered  with  soft  hair i 

Eyes — Moderately  full,  large  and  mild 2 

Horns — Set   moderately   narrow   at   base,    tine,    oval,    well 

bent,  inclining  forward    2 

Neck — Fine,  nearly  free  from  dewlap,  neatly  joined  to  head 
and  shoulders,  topline  slightly  curving,  of  good  length, 

moderately  thin,  elegant  in  bearin? 4 

Shoulders — Fine  anl  even  over  top,  lower  than  hips  and 

moderately  thick,  deep  and  broad   3 

Chest — Low,  deep  and  broad 6 

Crops — Full   and   level  with  shoulders    2 

Chine — Straight,  broadly  developed  and  open   3 

Barrel — Well  rounded  with  large  abdomen    5 

Loin  and  Hip — Broad,  full,  long  and  level 5 

Rump — High,  broad  and  level,  with  roomy  pelvis 4 

Thurl— High,  with  great  width    : 4 

Quarters — Long,  straight  behind,  roomy  in  the  twist,  wide 

and  full  at  sides 4 

Flanks — Fairly  deep  and  full 2 

Legs — Short,  clean,  tanerine,  with  strong  arm,  in  position 
firm,  wide  apart;  feet  of  medium  size,  round,  solid  and 

deep    5 

Tail — Reaching  to  hocks  or  below,  large  at  setting,  taper- 
ing finely  to  a  full  switch 2 

Hair  and  Handling — Fine,  soft  and  mellow,  skin  of  mod- 
erate thickness,  secretions  oily  and  of  rich  brown  or 

yellow    color     10 

Mammary  Veins — Large,  long,  crooked,  brandhed  with  ex- 
tension enterine  laree  rrifi^e^  10 

Udder — Capacious,  flexible,  well  developed,  both  in  front 
and  rear;  teats  well  formed,  wide  apart  and  of  con- 
venient size  12 

Escutcheon     8 

Total 100 

A  cow  that  b*s  ma^e  milk  or  butter  record  in  ex°es<*  of  the 
minimum  requirement  annlicable  to  her  case  (see  Rule  6) 
shall  be  credited  one  point  for  each  and  every  eight  per  cent 
that  such  record  exceeds  such  requirement. 


96  JUDGING    CATTLE 

No  cow  shall  be  received  to  Advanced  Registry  that  does 
not  scale  75  points  (credits  from  milk  records  being  allowed 
as  provided  above). 

No  cow  shall  be  received  to  Advanced  Registry  that  in  the 
judgment  of  the  inspector  will  not  reach  a  minimum  weight 
of  1,000  pounds  at  full  age,  in  ordinary  flesh  milking  form. 


JERSEY  CATTLE. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY   THE  AMERICAN  JERSEY  «J 

CATTLE  CLUB,   MAY   6,   1885.      VOL.    45,   1896 COW. 

Head — Small    and   lean;    face   dished,    broad   between   the     ° 

eyes  and  narrow  between  the  horns    2 

Eyes — Full  and  placid;  liorns  small,  crumpled  and  ambar- 

colored     1 

Neck — Thin,  rather  long,  with  clean  throat  and  not  heavy 

at  the  shoulders    8 

Back — Level  to  the  setting  on  of  tail 1 

Loin — Broad  across  the  loin 6 

Barrel — Long,  hooped,  broad  and  deep  at  the  flank 10 

Hips — Wide  apart;   rump  long 10 

Legs — Short     2 

Tail — Fine,  reaching  the  hocks,  with  good  switch l 

Color  and  mellowness  of  hide;  inside  of  ears  yellow 5 

Fore  Udder — Full  in  form  and  not  fleshy 13 

Hind  Udder — Full  in  form  and  well  up  behind 11 

Teats — Rather  large,  wide  apart  and  squarely  placed 10 

Milk  Veins — Prominent 5 

Disposition — Quiet     5 

General  appearance  and  apparent  constitution 10 

Total 100 

In  judging  heifers,  omit  Nos.  11,  13  and  14. 

FOR  BULLS. 

The  same  scale  of  points  shall  be  used  in  judging  bulls, 
omitting  Nos.  11,  12  and  14,  in  the  order  named  above,  and 
making  due  allowance  for  masculinity;  but  when  bulls  are 
exhibited  with  their  progeny  in  a  separate  class,  add  30  counts 
for  progeny. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOE    CATTLE 


97 


Dairy  Temper- 
ament. Con- 
stitution ..38 


GUERNSEY  CATTLE. 

SCALE    OF    POINTS    ADOPTED    BY    THE    AMERICAN  ~ 

GUERNSEY  CATTLE  CLTTB,  DEC.  13,  1899 — COW. 

,  Clean  cut,  lean  face;  strong,  sinewy 
jaw;  wide  muzzle  with  wide  open 
nostrils;  full,  bright  eye  with  quiet 
and  gentle  expression;  forehead  long 
and  broad 5 

Long,  thin  neck  with  strong  juncture 
to  head;  clean  throat.  Backbone 
rising  well  between  shoulder  blades; 
large  rugged  spinal  processes,  indi- 
cating good  development  of  the  spinal 
cord  5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide;  rump  long; 
wide,  strong  structure  of  spine  at 
setting  on  of  tail.  Long,  thin  tail 
with  good  switch;  Thin,  in-curving 
thighs  5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide 
apart,  giving  an  open,  relaxed  con- 
formation; thin,  arching  flank....  5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong 
muscular  and  navel  development, 
indicative  of  capacity  and  vitality.  . 


15 


Milking  Marks 
de  n  o  t  i  n  g 
quantity  of 
flow  .  ... .10 


Udder 
tion 


Forma- 


26 


Indicating  Col- 
or of  Milk.  .15 

Milking   Marks 
denoting  qual- 
ity of  flow.  .    6 


Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feel- 
ing and  texture  but  not 'thick 3 

Escutcheon  wide  on  tMghs,  high  and 
broad  with  thigh  ovals % 

Milk  veins  crooked,  branching  and 
prominent,  with  large  or  deep  wells  8 

Udder  full   in  front 8 

Udder  full  and  well  up  behind 8 

Udder  of  large  size  and  capacity 4 

Teats  wide  apart,  squarely  placed  and 

of    good   and   even   size 6 

/  Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone 
)       of  tail,  at  base  of  horns,  on  udder, 
j       teats  and  body  generally.     Hoof,  am- 
ber   colored 15 


Symmetry    and 
Size     ,  .    5 


Udder  showing  plenty  of  substance  but 
not  too  meaty  6 

Color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn  with 
white  markings.  Cream  colored  nose. 
Horns  amber  colored,  small,  curved 
and  not  coarse.  Hoofs  amber  color- 
ed    3 

Size  for  tihe  breed:  Mature  cows 
four  years  old  or  over  about  1,050 

pounds    2 

Total    ,  100 


9$ 


JUDGING  CATTLE 


Temperament. 
Constitution   38 


SCALE  OF  POINTS   ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN 
GUERNSEY    CATTLE    CLUB,    DEC.    13,    1899 BULL.  § 

f  Clean    cut,    lean    face;    strong,    sinewy 
jaw;    wide  muzzle  with  wide  open 
nostrils;    full,  bright  eye  with  quiet 
gentle  expression;  forehead  long  and 
broad     5 

Long  Masculine  neck  with  strong  junc- 
ture to  head;  clean  throat.  Back- 
bone rising  well  between  shoulder 
blades;  large,  rugged  spinal  proc- 
esses, indicating  good  development 
of  the  spinal  cord 5 

Pelvis  arching  and  wide;  rump  Ions; 
wide,  strong  structure  of  spine  at 
setting  on  p?  tail.  Long,  thin,  tail  with 
good  switch.  Thin,  in-curving 
thighs  5 

Ribs  amply  and  fully  sprung  and  wide 
apart,  giving  an  open,  relaxed  con- 
formation; tihin,  arching  flank....  5 

Abdomen  large  and  deep,  with  strong 
muscle  and  navel  development,  in- 
dicative of  capacity  and  vitalitv. 


15 


Hide  firm  yet  loose,  with  an  oily  feel- 
ing and  texture,  but  not  thick.    .  .  . 


Dairy  prepo- 
tency      15 

Rudimentaries 
and     Milk 

Veins      .  .      10 

Indicating  color 
of  Milk  in  Off- 
spring    ....  15 


As  shown  by  having  a  great  deal  of 
vigor,  style,  alertness  and  resolute 
appearance  15 

Rudimentaries  of  good  size,  squarely 
and  broadly  placed  in  front  of  and 
free  from  scrotum.    Milk  veins  prom- 
inent         10 

Skin  deep  yellow  in  ear,  on  end  of  bone 
of  tail,  at  base  of  horns  and  body 
generally,  hoofs  amber  colored.  ...  15 


Symmetry    and 
Size  ..22 


Color  of  hair  a  shade  of  fawn  with 
white  markings.  Cream  colored 
nose.  Horns  amber  colored,  curv- 
ing and  not  coarse 8 

Size  for  breed:  Mature  brills  four  years 
old  or  over,  about  1,500  Ibs 4 

General  appearance  as  indicative  of  the 
power  to  beget  animals  of  strong 

dairy    qualities 10 

Total    100 

EXPLANATORY    NOTES     BY    COMMITTEE. 

We  recognize  the  Guernsey  should  be — 

First.  A  dairy  animal  with  a  distinctive  dairy  temperament 
and  conformation,  having  a  strong,  nervy  structure  wit'h  a 
corresponding  flow  of  nervous  energy,  and  every  indication 
of  capacity  and  vitality. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE    FOR   CATTLE  99 

Second.  In  color  of  hair,  a  shade  of  fawn,  with  white  on 
limbs  and  under  part  of  body  are  considered  the  prevailing 
markings,  and  some  degree  of  uniformity  is  desirable. 

Third.  One  of  the  important  distinguishing  features  of 
the  breed  is  the  presence  of  a  yellow  color  in  the  pigment 
of  the  skin,  which  is  indicative  of  rich  golden  color  in  the  milk. 
This  is  very  pronounced  in  the  Guernsey  and  held  by  her  to 
the  greatest  extent  under  all  conditions  of  stabling  and  feed. 
The  intensity  of  this  trait  is  more  marked  in  some  animals 
and  families  than  in  others,  but  it  should  be  kept  at  the  high- 
est standard.  It  is  fast  being  recognized  that  this  color  is  ac- 
companied by  a  superior  flavor  in  the  milk  and  thus  in  the 
butter. 

DAIRY   TEMPERAMENT. 

By  "dairy  temperament"  is  meant  a  strong  overruling  pre- 
disposition or  tendency  to  turn  the  consumption  of  food 
towards  the  production  of  milk  with  a  high  content  of  solids, 
especially  butter  fat  as  against  the  constitutional  tendency 
so  often  seen  to  turn  food  into  fiesh.  Even  in  the  strongest 
dairy  breeds  there  are  more  or  less  frequent  out-crops  in 
male  and  female  of  the  flesh-making  temperament.  To  breed 
from  such  animals,  while  we  are  striving  to  establish  a  pre- 
potent dairy  temperament  or  tendency  is  not  wise.  All 
cattle  bred  specifically  for  dairy  purposes  should  possess  a  clear 
and  decided  dairy  temperament,  for  it  is  that  quality  of 
character  we  desire  most  to  establish,  enlarge  and  perpetuate 
in  the  Guernsey  cow. 

This  is  especially  indicated  by  the  shape  of  the  head,  show- 
ing brain  capacity,  wide  muzzle,  open  nostril,  full,  bright  eyes, 
feminine  neck  and  a  construction  of  the  backbone  indicating 
a  strong  flew  of  nerve  power  and  support  from  the  brain  to 
all  of  the  maternal  organs. 

CONSTITUTION. 

In  breeding  our  domestic  animals,  especially  for  lone: 
service  like  the  dairy  cow,  it  is  very  important  that  they  should 
have  abundant  vital  power  which  we  call  "constitution."  But 
constitution  must  be  judged  and  measured  by  the  peculiar 
function  the  animal  is  bred  to  fulfill.  With  the  race  horse 
the  function  is  speed;  with  the  steer,  the  laying  on  of  flesh; 
with  the  dairy  cow,  the  production  of  milk  solids.  In  all  these 
various  functions  the  animal  that  is  to  represent  any  one  of 
them  must  show  not  only  large  capacity  in  the  line  of  that 
function  but  also  the  ability  to  endure  long  and  well  the 
strain  of  such  function  and  keep  in  good  health.  Constitution 
is  best  indicated  by  a  full  development  at  the  navel  and  strong 
abdominal  walls,  showing  that  the  animal  when  in  the  prenatal 
state  was  abundantly  nourished  by  the  mother  through  a 
well  developed  umbilical  cord. 

PREPOTENCY. 

In  the  scale  for  bulls,  for  the  first  time,  we  believe,  in  the 
history  of  dairy  breeds,  this  point  is  introduced.  The  reason 
we  have  included  it  is  that  "prepotency"  is  the  chief  consider- 
ation in  the  selection  of  all  male  breeding  animals.  The  pedi- 


100  JUDGING    CATTLE 

gree  and  conformation  is  often  all  that  can  be  desired,  but 
because  the  bull  is  lacking  in  prepotent  breeding  power  he  is 
an  expensive  failure.  This  quality  is  in  a  sense,  difficult  to 
perceive  or  describe,  but  we  know  certain  animals  have  it  in 
a  high  degree  and  others  fail  of  it  completely.  It  is  fairly  well 
indicated  by  vigor  of  appearance,  strong,  resolute  bearing  and 
abundant  nervous  energy.  We  would  distinguish  this  from  an 
ugly  disposition.  A  bull  is  ugly  by  the  way  he  is  handled  rather 
than  by  (his  breeding.  What  we  want  is  strong,  impressive 
blood.  A  dull,  sluggish  spirit  and  action,  we  consider  it 
indicative  of  a  lack  of  true  dairy  prepotency,  but  we  would  pre- 
fer to  breed  to  a  rather  sluggish  appearing  bull  with  lirst  class 
rudimentaries  than  to  a  stylish  one  with  badly  placed  rudi- 
mentaries. 

RUDIMENTARY   TEATS. 

We  consider  that  a  well  balanced  and  well  shaped  udder  in 
the  cow  is  largely  due  to  the  way  the  rudimentary  teats  are 
placed  on  tiie  sire.  If  they  are  crowded  close  together  the  re- 
sult is  likely  to  be  narrow,  pointed  udders.  If  they  are  placed 
well  apart,  of  good  size,  and  well  forward  of  the  scrotum, 
the  effect  we  think  will  be  to  influence  largely  the  production 
of  well  shaped  udders  in  the  resulting  heifers  and  counteract 
the  tendency  to  ill-shaped  udders  inheritable  from  dams 
deficient  in  this  respect.  We  believe  the  future  excellence 
of  the  Guernsey  cow  will  be  greatly  aided  by  close  attention 
on  the  part  of  her  breeders  to  this  point. 


RED  POLLED  CATTLE. 

DESCRIPTION    OP    STANDARD   AND    SCALE   OP    POINTS    FOR   RED    POLLED    CATTLE. 

COW. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS — Scurs.,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a 
horny  growth  on  the  head.  Any  white  spots  on  body  above 
lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 

COLOR — Any  shade  of  red.  The  switch  of  tail  and  udder  may  be  -| 
white,  with  some  white  running  forward  to  the  navel.  Nose  of  £, 
a  clear  flesh  color.  Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish, 

waxy   color    2 

OBJECTIONS — An  extreme  dark,  or  an  extreme  light  red  is  not 
desirable.  A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 

HEAD — Of  medium  length,  wide  between  the  eyes,  sloping  grad- 
ually from  above  eyes  to  poll.  The  poll  well  defined  and  prom- 
inent, with  a  sharp  dip  behind  it  in  center  of  head.  Ears  of 
medium  size  and  well  carried.  Eyes  prominent ;  face  well  dished 

between  the  eyes.     Muzzle  wide  with  large  nostrils 6 

OBJECTIONS — A  rounding  or  flat  appearance  of  the  poll. 
Head  too  long  and  narrow. 

NECK — Of  medium  length,  clean  cut,  and  straight  from  head  to 
top  of  shoulder  with  inclination  to  arch,  when  fattened,  and 
may  show  folds  of  loose  skin  underneath  when  in  milking  form  3 

SHOULDER — Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid,   coming  up 

level   with   line  of   back 6 

OBJECTIONS — Shoulder  too  prominent,  giving  the  appearance 
of  weakness  in  heart  girth.  Shoulder  protruding  above 
line  of  back. 

CHEST — Broad  and  deep,  insuring  constitution.     Brisket  prominent 

and  coming  well  forward 10 

BACK  AND  RIBS — Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level  from 
withers  to  the  setting  on  of  tail  ;  moderately  wide,  with  spring 
of  ribs,  starting  from  the  back  bone,  giving  a  rounding  ap- 
pearance, with  ribs  flat  and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

OBJECTIONS — Front  ribs  too  straight,  causing  depression 
back  of  shoulders.  Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE    FOE    CATTLE  101 

HIPS — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered 3 

QUARTERS — Of    good    length,    full,    rounding,    and    level;    thighs 

wide,  roomy,  and  not  too  meaty 6 

OBJECTIONS — Prominent  hooks,  sunken  quarters. 

TAIL — Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  forward,  long  and  taper- 
ing to  a  full  switch 2 

LEGS — Short,    straight,    squarely    placed,    medium    bone 3 

OBJECTIONS — Hocks  crooked,  legs  placed  too  close  together. 

FORE-UDDER — Full  and  flexible,  reaching  well  forward,  extend- 
ing down  level  with  hind-udder 10 

HIND-UDDER— Full  and  well  up  behind 10 

TEATS — Well  placed,  wide  apart  and  of  reasonably  good  size ....        4 
OBJECTIONS — Lack    of    development,    especially    in    forward 
udder.     Udder  too  deep,  "bottle  shaped"  and  teats  too  close 
together.     Teats  unevenly  placed  and  either  too  large  or 
too  small. 

MILK  VEINS — Of  medium  size,  full,  flexible,  extending  well  for- 
ward. Well  retained  within  the  body  ;  milk  wells  of  medium 
size  6 

HIDE — Loose,  mellow,   flexible,   inclined  to  thickness,  with  a  good 

full  coat  of  soft  hair 5 

OBJECTIONS — Thin,  papery  skin,  or  wiry  hair. 

CONDITION — Healthy,   moderate   to   liberal   flesh  evenly  laid   on  ; 

glossy  coat ;  animal  presented  in  good  bloom 10 

Total    100 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION — Cow  medium  wedge  form,  low  set,  top 
and  bottom,  lines  straight  except  at  flank,  weight  1300  Ibs.  to 
1500  Ibs.  when  mature  and  finished. 

BULL. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS — Scurs,  or  any  evidence  whatever  of  a 
horny  growth  on  the  head.  Any  white  spots  on  body  above 
lower  line  or  brush  of  tail. 

COLOR — Any  shade  of  red.  The  switch  of  tail  may  be  white,  with 
some  white  running  forward  to  the  navel.  Nose  of  a  clear 
flesh  color.  Interior  of  ears  should  be  of  a  yellowish,  waxy 

color     2 

OBJECTIONS — An   extreme   dark  or  an   extreme  light   red   is 

not  desirable.     A  cloudy  nose  or  one  with  dark  spots. 
HEAD — Wide,  strong  and  masculine,  relatively  short.  Poll  stronger 
and   less   prominent   than   in   cow.      Ears   of  medium   size   and 
well  carried;  eyes  prominent;  muzzle  wide  with  large  nostrils.      12 
OBJECTIONS — Long,   narrow,    or   lacking   in   masculine   char- 
acter. 
NECK — Of  medium  length,  full  crest,  of  good  thickness,  strong,  of 

masculine  appearance    5 

SHOULDER — Of  medium  thickness  and  smoothly  laid,  coming  up 

level  with  line  of  back 8 

OBJECTIONS — Shoulder  top  prominent,  giving  the  appearance 
of  weakness  in  heart  girth,  shoulder  protruding  above  line 
of  back. 
CHEST — Broad  and  deep,  insuring  constitution.     Brisket  prominent 

and  coming  well  forward 12 

BACK  AND  RIBS — Back  medium  long,  straight  and  level  from 
withers  to  setting  on  of  tail,  moderately  wide,  with  spring  of 
ribs  starting  from  the  back  bone,  giving  a  rounding  apearance, 

with  ribs  flat  and  fairly  wide  apart 14 

OBJECTIONS — Front    ribs    too    straight,    causing    depression 
back  of  shoulders.     Drop  in  back  or  loin  below  the  top  line. 

HIPS — Wide,  rounding  over  the  hooks,  and  well  covered 3 

QUARTERS — Of  good  length,  full,  rounding,  and  level ;  thighs  wide 

and   moderately   full,    deep    6 

OBJECTIONS — Prominent  hooks,   sunken  quarters 
TAIL — Tail  head  strong  and  setting  well  forward,  long  and  taper- 
ing to  a  full  switch    2 

LEGS — Short,   straight,   squarely  placed,   medium   bone 3 

OBJECTIONS — Hocks  crooked  ;  legs  placed  too  close  together. 
RUDIMENTARIES — Large,  wide  apart,  and  placed  well  forward.      1? 

Position   of   rudimentaries    6 

OBJECTIONS — Rudimentaries    placed    back    on    scrotum,     or 
placed  too  close  together,  indicating  tendency  to  transmit 
badly  formed  udders. 
HIDE — Loose,  mellow,   flexible,   inclined  to  thickness,  with  a  good 

full  coat  of  soft  hair 5 


JUDGING    CATTLE 

OBJECTIONS — Thin,  papery  skin,  or  wiry  hair. 
CONDITION — Healthy  ;   moderate  to   liberal   flesh   evenly  laid  on  ; 

glossy  coat ;   animal  presented   in  good   bloom 10 


Total    100 

GENERAL  DESCRIPTION — Strong,  iniDressive,  low  set,  and  of 
good  carriage.  Weight  1800  Ibs.  to  2000  Ibs.  when  mature  and 
finished. 


DUTCH  BELTED  CATTLE. 

SCALE    OF   POIXTS    ADOPTED   BY    THE    DUTCH    BELTED  2 

CATTLE    ASSOCIATION — COW. 

Body — Color  black,  with  a  clearly  defined  continuous  white 
belt.      The  belt  to  be  of  medium  width,  begining  be- 
hind the  shoulder  and  extending  nearly  to  the  hips.  .      8 
Head — Comparatively  long  and  somewhat  dishing;    broad 
between  the  eyes.     Poll  prominent;  muzzle  fine;  dark 

tongue    6 

Eyes — Black,   full  and   mild.      Horns   long  compared   with 

their    diameter    4 

Neck — Fine  and  moderately  thin  and  should  harmonize  in 

symmetry  with  the  head  and  shoulders 6 

Shoulders — Fine  at  top,  becoming  deep  and  broad  as  they 

extend  backward  and  Downward,  with  a  low  chest  ....       4 
Barrel — Large  and  deep  wiiTh.  well  developed  abdomen;  ribs 

well  rounded  and  free  from  fat 10 

Hips — Broad,  and  chine  level,  with  full  loin    10 

Rump — High,    long    and    broad     6 

Hind  Quarters — Long  and  deep,  rear  line  in-curving.     Tail 

long,    slim,    tapering   to    a   full    switch    8 

Legs — Short,    clean,    standing   well   apart 3 

"Udder — Large,  well  developed  front  and  rear.    Teats  of  con- 
venient  size   and   wide   apart;    mammary  veins   large, 

long,  crooked,   entering  large  orifices 20 

Escutcheon     2 

Hair — Fine  and  soft;  skin  of  moderate  thickness,  of  a  rich 

dark  or  yellow  color 3 

Quiet  Disposition  and  free  from  excessive  fat 4 

General   Condition   and   apparent   constitution 6 

Total    100 

FOB    BULLS. 

The  scale  of  points  for  males  shall  be  the  same  as  those 
given  for  females,  except  that  "Udder"  shall  be  omitted  and 
the  bull  credited  10  points  for  size  and  wide  spread  placing 
of  rudimentary  teats,  5  points  additional  for  development  of 
shoulder,  and  5  additional  points  for  perfection  of  belt. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF    EXCELLENCE    IOR    CATTLE  103 


AYRSHIRE  CATTLE. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN   AYRSHIRE 
BREEDERS  ASSOCIATION,   FEB.   21,   1889 BULL. 

The  points  desirable  in  the  female  are  generally  so  in  the 
male,  but  must,  of  course,  be  attended  with  that  masculine 
character  which  is  inseparable  from  a  strong  and  vigorous  con- 
stitution. Even  a  degree  of  coarseness  is  admissible;  but  then 
it  must  be  so  exclusively  of  masculine  description  as  never  to 
be  discovered  in  a  female  of  his  get. 

The  Head  of  the  bull  should  be  shorter  than  that  of  the     « 
cow,  but  the  frontal  bone  should  be  broad,  the  muzzle     f 
good  size,  throat  nearly  free  from  hanging  folds,  eyes     £ 
full.     The  horns  should  have  an  upward  turn,   with 
sufficient  size  at  the  base  to  indicate  strength  of  con- 
stitution       10 

Neck  —  Of  medium  length,  somewhat  arched,  and  large  in 

those  muscles  which  indicate  power  and  strength...    10 
Pore  Quarters — Shoulders  close  to  the  body,  without  any 
hollow  space   behind;    chest   broad,   brisket   deep   and 

well  developed,  but  not  too  large 7 

Back  —  Short  and  straight;  spine  sufficiently  well  defined, 
but  not  in  the  same  degree  as  in  the  cow;   ribs  well 

sprung  and  the  body  deep  in  the  flanks 10 

Hind  Quarters — Long,  broad  and  straight;  ihip  bones  wide 
apart;   pelvis  long,  broad  and  straight;   tail  set  on  a 

level  with  the  back;  thighs  deep  and  broad 10 

Scrotum  —  Large,  with  well  developed  teats  in  front 7. 

Legs  —  Short  in  proportion  to  size,  joints  firm.     Hind  legs 

well  apart,  and  not  to  cross  in  walking 5 

Skin  —  Yellow,  soft,  elastic  and  of  medium  thickness 10 

Color — Red  of  any  shade,  brown  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of 

these — each  color  being  distinctly  defined 3 

Average  Live  Weight  at  maturity,  about  1,500 10 

General  Appearance,  including  style  and  movement 15 

Escutcheon,  large  and  fine  development 3 

Total  .100 


104  JUDGING    CATTLE 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  AYRSHIRE 
BREEDERS   ASSOCIATION,   FEB.    21,    1889 COW. 

The  following  scale  of  points  for  the  Ayrshire  cow  were 
adopted — being  similar  to  the  scale  adopted  in  Scotland  in     w 
1884 — and  changed   in   a   few   points  to   render  them   ap-     | 
plicable  to  this  country.  £ 

Head — Short;  forehead  wide;  nose,  fine  between  the  muzzle 
and  the  eyes;  muzzle,  large;  eyes,  full  and  lively; 

horns,  wide  set  on,  inclining  upwards 10 

Neck — Moderately  long  and  straight  from  the  head  to  the 
top  of  the  shoulder,  free  from  loose  skin  on  the  under 
side,  fine  at  its  junction  with  the  head,  and  enlarging 

symmetrically  towards  the  shoulder 5 

Fore  Quarters — Shoulders  sloping;  withers  fine;  chest  suffi- 
ciently broad  and  deep  to  insure  constitution;  brisket 
and  whole  fore  quarters  light,  the  cow  gradually  in- 
creasing in  depth  and  width  backwards 5 

Back — Short  and  straight;  spine  well  defined,  especially  at 
the  shoulders;  short  ribs,  arched;  the  body  deep  at 

the   flanks    10 

Hind  Quarters — Long,  broad  and  straight,  hook  bones 
wide  apart  and  not  overlaid  v/ith  fat;  thighs,  deep  and 
broad;  tail,  long,  slender,  and  set  on  level  with  the 

back    8 

Udder — Capacious  and  not  fleshy,  hind  part  broad  and 
firmly  atttched  to  t^e  body,  the  sole  nearly  level  and 
extending  well  forward;  milk  veins  about  udder  and 
abdomen  well  developed;  the  teats  from  2J  to  3  inches 
in  length,  equal  in  thickness — the  thickness  being  in 
proportion  to  the  length — hanging  perpendicularly, 
their  distance  apart  at  the  sides  should  be  equal  to  one- 
third  of  the  length  of  the  vessel,  and  across  to  about 

one-half   of  the   breadth 30 

Legs — Short  in  proportion  to  size,  the  bones  fine,  the  joints 

firm    3 

Skin — Yellow,    soft   and    elastic,    and   covered   with   soft, 

close,  woolly  hair 5 

Color — Red  of  any  shade,  brown  or  white,  or  a  mixture  of 

these — each  color  being  distinctly  defined 3 

Average  Live  Weight  in  full  milk,  about  1,000  pounds.  .  .      8 

General  Appearance,  including  style  and  movement 10 

Escutcheon — Large  and  fine  development 3 


Total  ...100 


Ayrshire  cow,  NELLIE  OSBORXE,  winner  of  Sweepstakes  Gold  Medal 
for  breed  at  World's  Columbian  Exposition,  Chicago,  1893.  Owned  by 
D.  Drummond,  Petite  Cote,  Quebec. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    AYRSHIRE    CATTLE. 

»I*HIS  BREED  of  Scotch  dairy  cattle  originated  under  the  rugged  conditions 
of  Ayrshire  and  in  their  type  and  general  characteristics  they  exemplify 
the  form  and  quality  which  would  be  called  for  in  a  dairy  animal  required 
to  make  the  most  economical  use  of  their  food  and  do  the  best  under  condi- 
tions too  severe  for  finer  and  more  delicate  cattle.  The  head  is  slim,  rather 
long  in  the  face  and  surmounted  with  a  horn  not  wholly  devoid  of  strength 
the  neck,  somewhat  short  is  clean  cut  though  not  delicate,  the  shoulder  is 
sharp  and  the  chest  full  and  deep,  the  body  is  straight  in  its  top  lines,  slightly 
more  compact  than  usually  found  in  the  dairy  type,  but  has  the  volume  which 
invariably  results  in  large  capacity  for  consumption  and  production.  The 
hind  quarter  is  moderately  wide  and  covered  with  flesh  while  the  thigh  is 
thin  and  the  udder  long  and  excellent  in  its  proportion.  The  size  and  the 
placing  of  the  teats  is  a  feature  wttich  calls  for  careful  attention  in  ranking 
representatives  of  this  breed.  See  official  scale  of  points,  pages  103  and  104. 


Holstein-Friesian  cow  COLANTHA  4th  in  her  four  year  old  and  six 
year  old  form.  The  lower  illustration  is  a  photo  of  her  as  a  four  year 
old.  Compare  this  with  the  upper,  which  is  a  photo  of  her  as  a  six  year 
old,  and  the  changes  that  take  place  in  a  dairy  cow  as  she  approaches 
maturity  may  be  seen.  This  cow  is  owned  by  Messrs.  Gillett  &  Son,  of 
of  Rosendale,  Wis.,  and  her  records  are  as  follows : 


AGE. 

2  years . . 

3  years . . 

4  years . . 

5  years. . 

6  years . . 


Milk,  1  day.    Butter,  1  w'k.    Milk,  1  y'r.    Butter  Fat.l  y'r. 
14.1  Ibs.      12,463.41bs. 


52.21bs. 
64. 8  Ibs. 
70.2  Ibs. 


18.7  Ibs.      14,951. 5  Ibs.  577.7  Ibs. 

21.  libs.      13, 992. 2  Ibs.  532.9  Ibs. 

14, 481. 8  Ibs. 


77. 3  Ibs.  24.5  Ibs.      14,782.7  Ibs.  562.9  Ibs. 

This  cow  was  also  first  in  the  official  tests  of  the  Holstein-Friesian 
Association  in  1900,  and  also  winner  of  first  prize  in  tests  for  economy 
of  production  making  19.6  Ibs.  fat  in  one  week  at  a  food  cost  of  6  3-5 
cents  per  pound. 

DESCRIPTION    OF   HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN    CATTLE. 

THE  ORIGINAL  type  of  this  breed  had  more  size  of  frame  than  that  which 
characterizes  the  modern  representative.  The  conditions  existing  have 
favored  the  production  of  a  large  dairy  animal  with  extreme  development  for 
yielding  milk.  The  type  which  is  now  common  shows  more  refinement  but 
still  has  the  characteristics  in  the  main  which  identified  the  first  importations. 
The  color  should  be  black  and  white,  with  no  mixture  of  this  or  tinge  of 
brown.  The  head  should  be  lengthy,  generally  because  of  a  long  face,  the 
eye  should  be  large  and  bright  and  that  portion  of  the  head  between  the 
horn  and  the  eye  should  be  full.  The  neck  should  be  slim  and  lengthy,  the 
shoulder  sharp  and  fitting  well  while  the  chest  should  be  deep  and  the  body 
have  for  its  most  noted  feature  a  large  development  of  the  digestive  organs. 
The  loins  should  be  strong  though  bare  of  flesh  and  the  hind  quarters 
straight  and  angular  and  the  thighs  thin.  The  frame  should  show  as  much 
refinement  as  possible  without  any  indication  of  delicacy.  The  general 
conformation  should  be  such  as  to  favor  large  capacity  for  the  consumption 
of  food  and  the  production  of  the  largest  quantity  of  milk.  See  official  scale 
of  points  page  95. 


PARADISE  II  97112,  bred  by  H.  C.  Taylor,  Orfordville,  Wis.  Record, 
18  Ibs.  4  ounces.  Owned  by  A.  O.  Auten,  Jerseyville,  Illinois.  Dropped 
Oct.  17,  1893.  Good  type  of  a  dairy  cow.  Udder  very  capacious  and 
very  handsomely  developed,  teats  large  and  well  placed,  veins  very 
prominent.  Not  only  does  the  cow  show  unusual  merit  as  to  form, 
but  the  calf  is  especially  illustrative  of  the  type  desirable  for  dairy 
purposes. 


Guernsey  bull  BENJAMIN,  owned  by  Geo.  C.  Hill  &  Son,  Rosendale, 
Wis.,  a  noted  prize  winner  in  the  show  rings,  illustrating  the  main 
features  of  form  required  in  a  dairy  bull. 


Holstein  herd  owned  by  Messrs.  W.  B.  Smith  &  Sons,  of  Columbus, 
O.  In  this  remarkable  photograph  of  a  large  herd  there  cannot  be 
found  a  single  animal  which  does  not  illustrate  desirable  dairy  type. 


Photo   by   Schreibrr. 

Photograph  of  the  head  of  the  Jersey  cow,  BUTTERCUP.  This 
photograph  stiows  in  an  unusual  degree  the  conformation  of  head  ami 
neck  which  is  desirable  in  a  highly  bred  Jersey. 


JUDGING  SHEEP. 


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CHAPTER  III. 
JUDGING  SHEEP. 

152.  Method  of  Examining  Sheep.  In  examining  sheep 
it  is  advisable  to  adopt  a  definite  course  of  procedure  so 
that  nothing  may  be  overlooked  and  each  motion  made 
to  disclose  something  in  regard  to  the  merit  or  demerit 
of  the  sheep.  In  the  show  ring  that  contains  as  many  as 
ten  sheep  in  a  class  it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  judge  must 
work  quickly  as  well  as  accurately.  And  there  is  nothing 
that  will  contribute  to  both  of  these  like  examining  each 
part  of  the  sheep  in  regular  order.  The  best  course  to 
follow  is  perhaps  to  begin  at  the  head,  pressing  down 
the  lower  lip  with  the  finger  and  thumb  so  that  the  teeth 
may  be  seen  and  the  age  estimated.  Then  with  the  hands 
under  the  jaw  look  carefully  over  the  head,  seeing  that 
the  eyes  are  all  right,  the  head  a  good  shape  and  no  ap- 
pearance of  horns  in  those  breeds  that  are  hornless,  while 
in  those  that  possess  these,  note  that  they  spring  clear 
from  the  head.  Then  pass  to  the  neck,  feeling  with  the 
hands  the  fullness  of  it,  and  in  addition  observing  the 
length  and  the  way  it  swells  to  meet  the  shoulder  at  the 
shoulder  vein.  Pass  down  to  the  brisket,  putting  one 
hand  on  the  floor  of  the  chest  and  the  other  at  the  top  of 
the  shoulder  and  in  this  way  form  an  idea  as  to  the  depth 
of  the  sheep  through  these  parts.  Next  note  the  shoulder, 
observing  how  it  is  covered  with  flesh  along  the  side  and 
top  and  also  taking  the  girth  of  the  spring  of  the  ribs 
with  the  sheep.  From  the  top  of  the  shoulder,  using  one 
hand,  follow  the  line  of  the  back  to  the  end  of  the  body. 
By  carefully  handling  these  parts  the  fleshiness  of  the 
sheep  or  the  way  the  ribs  are  covered  and  the  straightness 


108  JUDGING    SHEEP 

of  the  back  are  determined  and  at  the  same  time  the 
spring  of  the  ribs  is  made  apparent.  The  width  of  the 
loin  should  then  be  taken  and  also  its  covering  and  thick- 
ness. The  width  of  the  hips  should  next  be  observed, 
and  turning  to  one  side  and  using  two  hands  the  length 
from  the  hip  to  the  end  of  the  hind  quarter  should  be 
made  apparent  between  the  two  points.  Then  the  width 
of  the  hind  quarter  and  the  manner  in  which  it  is  carried 
back  and  the  fullness  should  also  be  examined.  Follow- 
ing the  joint  towards  the  leg  the  development  of  the 
thigh  on  the  outside  requires  examination,  and  then  with 
the  hand  the  quarters  should  be  firmly  felt. 

153.  Deception  Due  to  Trimming.     In  this  way  the 
sheep  has  been  thoroughly  examined  as  to  form,  but  it  is 
to  be  remembered  that  the  hands  should  be  thoroughly 
relied  on  to  discover  all  defects  of  form,  and  unless  the 
sheep  is  carefully  handled  the  examiner  is  very  likely  to 
be  deceived.     The  wool  of  all  show  sheep  and  fat  stock 
of  the  medium  wool  classes,  is  always  trimmed,  and  the 
trimmer  possessing   skill   can  give   any   desired  form  to 
sheep,  providing  the  wool  is  long  enough  and  the  sheep 
approaches  somewhat  towards  the  form  which  is  being 
imitated. 

154.  Estimating  Age  by  the  Teeth.     The  order  of  ap- 
pearance of  the  nippers  or  incisors  in  sheep  is  a  fairly 
reliable  method  of  telling  their  age.     The  sheep  has  eight 
permanent  incisors,  and  these  appear  in  regular  order  in 
supplanting  the  milk  teeth.     The  milk  teeth  can  always 
be  told  from  the  permanent  incisors  by  the  fact  that  they 
are  narrower.    The  permanent  incisors  are  broad  and  widp 
and  widened  considerably  towards  the  top.     The  first  or 
central  pair 'of  incisors  appear  when  the  sheep  is  slightly 
over  one  year  old.     The  next  pair,  that  is,  one  on  each 
side  of  the  central  pair,  appear  the  following  year,  and 
that  is  when  the  sheep  is  two  years  old ;  the  third  pair 


Illustrations  of  Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Sheep  in  Judging  Them 


Looking  at  the  face  and  head  and 
feeling  the   fullness   of   the   neck. 


With    one    hand    on   top    and    the 
GStimate     the  depth  °f 


Notice    the    heart    girth    by    the  With  the  hand  perfectly  flat  note 

distance   between   the   hands.  ^6  ba°k'   " 


Illustrations  of  Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Sheep  in  Judging  Them— Continued 


Taking   the    width    of   the    loin ;    also    note    the    thickness. 


Noting    the    degree    to    which    the 
width  of  body  is  carried  to  the  end. 


Feeling    the    development    in    the 
leg    of    mutton. 


Illustrations  of  Proper  Methods  of  Handling  Sheep  in  Judging  Tisa^— 


Manner  and  place  of  opening  fleec< 


finest  quality  of  wool. 


Illustration  showing  the  proper  method  of  holding  the  hand  in 
examining  sheep.  It  will  be  noticed  that  in  this  illustration  those 
examining  the  sheep  hold  the  fingers  together  in  a  sloping  manner,  In 
this  way  it  is  possible  to  feel  the  form  of  the  sheep  without  disturbing 
or  breaking  the  fleece.  The  very  common  method  of  sticking  the 
fingers  into  the  fleece  makes  holes  in  it  which  greatly  annoy  the 
shepherd. 


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FOE    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  109 

appear  when  the  sheep  is  slightly  over  two  years  old,  and 
the  fourth  pair  when  it  is  between  four  and  five  years  old. 
This  completes  the  number  of  incisors  and  a  complete  set 
always  indicates  that  the  sheep  is  between  four  and  five 
years  old.  High  feeding  or  forcing  hastens  the  age  indica- 
tions, so  that  the  variations  are  often  unnoticeable,  es- 
pecially in  show  sheep  or  those  imported  from  Great 
Britain. 

I.    JUDGING   SHEEP   FOR   MUTTON   AND   WOOL. 

In  judging  fat  sheep  it  is  necessary  to  consider  tlie 
needs  of  the  feeder  of  this  class  of  stock,  the  demands  of 
the  butcher  for  lambs  and  mutton,  the  desires  of  the  con- 
sumer and  the  requirements  of  the  manufacturer  of  wool. 
These  requisites  must  be  merged  together  to  arrive  at  a 
correct  view  of  the  whole. 

155.  The  Feeding  Type  That  Gives  the  Best  Gains. 
In  considering  the  type  of  sheep  which  gives  the  best  re- 
sults in  the  feed  lot,  we  have  only  to  have  in  view  the 
type  that  gives  us  the  greatest  vigor,  insuring  an  active 
digestion  and  the  most  constitution,  so  that  nothing  may 
upset  the  sheep  in  the  rapid  progress  desired.  In  this 
connection  it  will  be  well  to  report  the  results  of  an  ex- 
periment made  at  the  Wisconsin  Experiment  Station  by 
the  writer.  Two  lots  of  lambs  were  selected;  the  one 
bred  by  the  station  showing  in  fleece  and  form  a  high 
degree  of  merit  for  grade  sheep.  These  lambs  were  bred 
from  high  grade  ewes  and  the  rams  had  been  selected  at 
high  prices  for  some  years  to  make  the  best  blend  with 
the  ewes.  The  lambs  were  very  uniform  as  to  type  and 
they  showed  what  might  be  called  an  unusual  degree  of 
merit  for  ordinary  feeding  lambs.  To  compare  with  these, 
some  lambs  native  to  northern  Wisconsin  showing  the 
type  common  to  that  territory  were  put  upon  similar 
rations.  The  representatives  of  both  these  kinds  of  lambs, 


110  JUDGING    SHEEP 

in  addition  to  having  the  same  kind  of  food,  were  kept 
under  identically  the  same  conditions,  putting  both  lots 
of  lambs  in  the  fed  lot  at  three  cents  a  pound  and  taking 
them  out  at  four  cents  at  the  end  of  the  feeding  period. 
The  well  bred  lambs  of  good  feeding  type  after  paying 
for  the  feed  that  they  ate,  at  current  prices  yielded  a 
profit  of  $1.13  per  head ;  while  those  representative  of  the 
poor  type  being  indiscriminately  bred  only  yielded  a  profit 
of  $  .60  per  head.  The  lambs  of  the  best  type  ate  more 
food,  but  they  made  more  than  a  corresponding  gain,  and 
the  chief  point  should  not  be  lost  sight  of,  that  the  profit 
from  each  one  of  them  was  just  twice  as  much  as  that 
from  those  being  of  inferior  type. 

156.  The  Feeding  Type  Bringing  Most  at  Maturity. 
In  the  selection  of  feeding  lambs  the  feeder  has  to  keep 
in  view  the  fact  that  there  is  most  demand  for  the  lamb 
that  when  fat  weighs  about  100  pounds.  Such  a  lamb  has 
the  quickest  sale  at  the  highest  price  per  pound.  This 
type  is  one  that  is  not  too  heavy  boned  and  large  framed, 
but  such  as  require  only  a  medium  amount  of  flesh  to 
make  the  carcass  smooth  and  plump  at  the  weight  in- 
dicated. It  is  the  low  set,  thick  t}rpe  that  possesses  these 
qualities  to  the  highest  degree.  To  secure  the  greatest 
profit  in  feeding  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  gain  made  as 
rapidly  as  possible.  The  younger  the  animal  the  cheaper 
the  cost  of  gain,  and  it  is  that  feature  that  makes  early 
maturity  such  an  important  consideration  in  the  different 
classes  of  stock.  The  market  favors  a  lamb  of  the  weight 
mentioned,  because  as  a  rule  such  usually  dress  better  and 
the  cuts  are  smaller. 


The  three  photos  on  the  right  hand  show  a  sheep 
of  a  bad  feeding  type.  Note  narrowness  ox  face, 
shallowness  of  chest,  with  length  of  leg  in  both 
front  and  side  view,  while  the  hind  view  shows 
thinness  of  leg  of  mutton.  The  three  photos  on 
the  left  show  a  good  feeding  type  in  breadth  of 
face,  depth  and  width  of  chest,  spring  of  rib, 
squareness  of  form  throughout  and  fullness  of  leg 
of  mutton.  The  sheep  used  for  these  illustrations 
A-ere  selected  from  the  lots  experimented  with  at 
the  Wisconsin  station  and  referred  to  in  para- 
graph 155. 


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FOB    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  111 

157.  -The  Type  Desired  by  the  Butcher.     If  we  were 
to  consider  only  the  things  that  have  the  most  importance 
in  the  view  of  the  butcher  we  would  have  a  very  queerly 
formed  sheep  presented  to  us.     The  butcher  is  very  de- 
sirous of  obtaining  the  greatest  percentage  of  valuable 
cuts,  consequently  the  different  parts  of  a  lamb  from  a 
butcher's  point  of  view  show  a  wide  variation  from  the 
feeder's  and  breeder's  ideal.     In  the  lamb  that  is  ideal 
from  a  butcher's  standpoint,  it  would  not  be  necessary  to 
have  any  neck,  chest,  digestive  apparatus  or  leg.    As  may 
be  seen  from  the  illustration  herewith  submitted,  the  neck 
has  a  value  of  only  one  cent  per  pound,  the  shoulder  is 
two  cents  and  the  shanks  the  same.     The  rib  running 
from  the  point  of  the  shoulder  to  the  loin  has  a  value  of 
nine  cents  per  pound,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  loin; 
while  the  leg  of  mutton  has  the  highest  value  per  pound, 
as  that  is  quoted  at  ten  cents.    The  breast  and  chest  have 
the  very  low  value  of  two  cents  per  pound.     It  is  very 
evident  from  these  facts  that  the  back,  loin  and  the  leg 
are  the  three  divisions  that  are  most  prized  in  the  lambs 
that  would  be  ideal  from  the  butcher's  standpoint. 

158.  Quality.     After  the  form  of  the  sheep  has  been 
carefully  examined  the  quality  should  be  noticed.     This 
means  the  cleanness  of  the  bone,  fineness  of  the  skin  and 
the  nature  of  the  hair  which  covers  the  face  and  legs. 
These  are  important  features  in  either  breeding  or  fat 
sheep.    It  is  perhaps  the  most  valuable  from  the  butcher  'c 
standpoint,  because  the  waste  is  less  from  a  sheep  of 
good  quality  than  it  is  from  one  that  is  inferior.     The 
range  in  the  percentage  of  dressed  weight  in  lambs  w,ill 
vary  from  50  per  cent  to  60  per  cent  of  their  live  weight, 
so  that  it  will  be  understood  that  quality  is  an  important 
factor  from  the  butcher's  standpoint,  where  the  profit 
from  the  carcass  is  largely  Determined  by  the  dressed 
weight  returns, 


112  JUDGING    SHEEP 

159.  The  Importance  of  Condition.     Not  only  should 
a  lamb  be  well  developed  in  the  parts  indicated  to  satisfy 
the  butcher,  but  the  flesh  should  be  uniformly  deep  over 
the  parts;  this  is  a  factor  in  giving  a  high  percentage  of 
dressed  weight  which  adds  greatly  to  the  profit  of  the 
carcass.    While  it  is  very  desirable  that  the  lamb  should 
weigh  about  100  pounds,  it  is  even  more  so  that  the  con- 
dition should  be  equally  satisfactory  to  produce  the  high- 
est price.    As  indicating  the  progress  of  the  lambs  in  the 
feed  lot  in  this  particular  it  would  perhaps  be  advisable 
to  follow  them  through  their  development. 

When  put  in  the  feed  lot  under  proper  conditions, 
lambs  will  usually  begin  to  show  the  influence  of  good 
feeding  at  the  end  of  the  third  or  fourth  week.  During 
this  time  they  seem  to  be  simply  getting  into  good  con- 
dition to  put  on  flesh,  though  it  appears  that  some  fat  is 
being  deposited  internally.  Towards  the  end  of  that 
time  many  of  the  lambs  may  be  noticed  standing  leisurely 
in  the  sun  in  a  partially  stretched  posture.  This  pose  in 
the  lambs  is  a  delight  to  the  shepherd.  The  fattening 
process  seems  to  extend  from  the  internal  regions,  and  is 
first  in  evidence  at  the  tail.  It  then  passes  along  the  back 
over  the  shoulder  and  reaches  the  neck;  from  this  line  it 
seems  to  extend  down  the  sides  and  over  the  breast  in 
front.  There  are  six  main  points  at  which  its  extension 
seems  most  in  evidence — at  the  tail,  middle  of  the  back, 
the  neck,  the  flank,  the  purse  and  the  breast, 

160.  Judging  Condition.     Judges  of  condition  handle 
these  different  points  and  seem  to  arrive  at  the  same  con- 
clusions from  continued  practice  in  observing  the  develop- 
ment of  any  one  of  them,  although  a  critical  examination 
will  reveal  that  sheep  sometimes  fatten  unevenly  and  may 
be  good  in  one  or  more  of  these  points  and  comparatively 
deficient  in  others.     By  feeling  the  tail  head  some  will 
form  their  opinion  as  to  the  degree  to  which  the  lamb 


Two  photographs  of  the  same  sheep— the  upper  before  trimming  and  the 
lower  after  trimming— by  Thomas  Bradbourne,  shepherd  for  Altamont  flock, 
who  holds  the  sheep.  This  illustrates  the  necessity  of  careful  handling  of 
sheep  to  determine  the  form. 


Five   Southdown   wethers   that   were   first   prize  pen   of   lambs   at   the 
International  Live  Stock  Exposition  in   1910. 


Photographs  of  sheep  teeth,  showing  changes  that  occur  in  the 
order  of  appearance  of  the  incisors.  The  photo  on  the  upper  left 
hand  shows  a  lamb's  mouth  with  all  temporary  incisors.  The  upper 
right  hand  photograph  shows  mouth  of  a  sheep  about  one  year  old,  with 
the  first  pair  of  permanent  incisors  and  the  temporary  incisors  back 
of  them.  The  photo  in  the  lower  left  hand  corner  shows  the  mouth 
of  a  sheep  about  two  years  old,  with  two  pairs  of  permanent  incisors 
appearing.  The  photograph  in  the  center  below  shows  the  mouth  of  a 
Ihree  year  old  sheep,  with  three  pairs  of  permanent  incisors.  The  lower 
right  hand  illustration  is  a  photograph  of  a  sheep's  mouth  when  four 
and  a  half  to  five  years  old.  The  incisors  are  all  permanent,  worn 
down  some  and  more  sloping  than  the  others. 


FOB    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  113 

13  fat.—  Others  are  satisfied  with  feeling  the  back.  Many 
after  feeling  the  tail,  grasp  the  neck  and  base  their 
opinion  on  the  fullness  of  that  part.  The  flank  and  breast 
are  often  used  for  further  assistance,  and  some  butchers 
estimate  condition  by  the  fullness  of  the  purse.  At  any 
of  these  points,  more  especially  the  back,  the  covering 
should  be  such  in  the  prime  lamb  as  to  prevent  feeling 
the  sharp  projection  of  backbone.  In  a  lamb  that  is  com- 
pletely fattened  there  is  a  distinct  trough  or  groove  run- 
ning from  the  tail  to  the  shoulders  and  the  covering  of 
flesh  should  extend  well  down  over  the  sides,  without 
softness  due  to  excessive  fat  or  oily  tissue.  All  lambs  do 
not  fatten  as  smoothly  or  as  uniformly  as  herein  indicated. 
In  most  lambs,  however,  the  worst  defect  is  bareness  of 
the  loin  and  lightness  in  the  hind  quarters.  With  these 
parts  well  covered  and  fully  developed,  a  rather  sharp 
shoulder  and  peaked  brisket  will  be  overlooked.  Not 
only  should  the  flesh  be  thick  over  the  valuable  cuts,  but 
it  should  be  firm.  Very  often  it  will  be  found  that  soft 
rough  patches  will  be  present  about  the  head  of  the  tail, 
owing  to  the  depositing  of  too  much  soft  flesh  on  thb 
back,  which  may  slip  from  there  on  the  over  ripe  lamb 
and  gather  at  the  flank  or  along  the  sides  in  long  soft 
rolls. 

161.  The  Importance  of  Dressed  Weight.  In  consider- 
ing this  subject  still  further  from  the  butcher's  point  of 
view,  there  is  the  question  of  quality  which  matprially 
affects  the  percentage  of  the  dressed  meat  obtained.  This 
in  addition  to  being  largely  influenced  by  the  condition 
of  the  sheep,  is  perhaps  most  influenced  by  the  fineness 
of  the  bone,  thickness  of  the  pelt  and  other  features, 
which  all  have  a  marked  influence  on  the  profit  from  the 
butcher's  standpoint.  In  this  connection  to  show  how  im- 
portant it  is  to  have  the  dressed  weight  yield  a  large  per- 


114  JUDGING    SHEEP 

centage  of  valuable  cuts,  it  will  be  interesting  to  quote 
some  results  obtained  from  an  experiment  at  the  Iow:i 
Station  under  direction  of  Professor  Curtiss.  He  found 
in  a  lot  of  ten  pure  bred  Oxford  lambs  marketed  by  the 
Iowa  Experiment  Station,  that  the  leg  cuts  constituted 
31.87  per  cent  of  the  whole  carcass  by  weight  and  sold 
for  42.63  per  cent  of  the  total  value.  The  leg,  rib  and 
loin  cuts  together  aggregated  73.74  per  cent  of  the  total 
weight  and  sold  for  92  per  cent  of  the  total. 

162.  Consideration   of   the    Consumer.      The    butcher 
and  the  consumer  are  very  similar  in  their  demands,  but 
there  are  a  few  points  that  are  of  peculiar  importance  to 
the  latter,  and  among  these  may  be  mentioned  the  char- 
acter of  the  flesh.     A  clear  distinction  should  be  drawn 
between  flesh  and  fat,  or,  as  it  may  be  otherwise  stated, 
between  muscle   and  lean  meat  and  tallow.     The  ideal 
sheep  from  the  consumer's  standpoint  is  one  that  carries 
a  large  proportion  of  flesh  or  lean  meat  with  but  a  limited 
quantity  of  fat.    In  live  sheep  this  is  indicated  by  a  firm, 
even  covering  over  the  parts  of  the  body.     The  flesh  has 
a  firm  but  springy  touch  and  is  smooth  over  all  regions, 
especially  thick  where  it  has  the  highest  value.    The  con- 
sumer asserts  his  preference  for  another  feature  and  that 
is  a  marked  desire  for  lamb  in  contrast  to  matured  sheep, 
owing  to  the  desirability  of  small  cuts  and  the  supposi- 
tion that  lamb  is  more  tender  than  older  sheep. 

163.  The  Qualities  of  the  Fleece.     In  estimating  the 
worth  of  a  sheep  or  judging  it,  not  only  is  it  fair  to  con- 
sider the  demands  of  the  feeder,  the  butcher  and  the  con- 
sumer, but  with  these  we  must  include  the  qualities  de- 
sired  by   the   wool   manufacturer.      Though   the   returns 
from  the  fleece  are  not  very  large,  yet  the  sheep  breeder 
must  consider  them  so  that  the  ultimate  profit  may  be  as 
great  as  possible.     To  arrive  at  a  correct  understanding 


FOB    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  115 

in  regard  to  this,  the  examiner  must  follow  the  best 
method  of  examination  and  also  know  in  detail  the  mar- 
ket requirements  for  wool. 

164.  Examining  the  Fleece.     In  examining  and  valu- 
ing the  fleece  the  chief  points  to  consider  are  the  quantity, 
quality   and  the   condition.     In   grouping   the   qualities 
under  these  three  divisions  we  can  include  the  interests 
of  those  directly  concerned  on  the  various  products  com- 
ing from  sheep,  on  the  market.     The  best  method  of  ar- 
riving at  the  nature  of  a  fleece  is  to  open  it  first  just  over 
the  shoulder.    It  is  in  this  region  that  the  finest  and  the 
soundest  wool  of  the  fleece  is  found.    By  using  the  hands 
in  a  flat  position  instead  of  sticking  the  end  of  the  fingers 
into  the  wool  the  fleece  may  be  parted  in  a  more  satis- 
factory manner.     After  looking  at  the  wool  and  skin  in 
this  region,  the  thigh  should  be  the  next  place  of  examina 
tion,  for  here  grows  the  poorest  and  coarsest  wool  of  the 
whole  fleece.    Then  the  covering  of  the  wool  on  the  belly 
also  demands  notice,  for  very  often  sheep  are  quite  poor 
in  this  region,  making  the  wool  light  and  indicating  a 
lack  of  constitution.     By  examining  the  fleece  in  these 
three  parts  a  fair  estimate  may  be  made  of  its  qualities. 

165.  Quantity  of  Fleece.     The  chief  factors  which  de- 
termine the  quantity  are  the  length,  density  and  evenness 
of  both  of  these  over  all  parts. 

166.  Density.     The   density  of  the  fleece  means  the 
closeness  of  the  fibers.     Technically  it  means  the  number 
of  fibers  that  grow  on  a  square  inch.    Density  is  not  only 
of  value  to  secure  a  heavy  fleece,  but  from  a  breeder's 
point  of  view  its  chief  importance  lies  in  the  fact  that  it 
is  more  protection  to  the  sheep  than  a  fleece  that  is  open. 
Not  only  is  a  sheep  with  a  loose  open  fleece  more  liable 
to  contract  a  cold  from  exposure  to  rain  or  wind,  but  it  is 
also  more  apt  to  yield  a  dirty  fleece,  as  the  loose  fleece 


H6  JUDGING    SHEEP 

catches  the  dirt  and  dust  and  pieces  of  hay  and  straw. 
From  the  shepherd's  point  of  view  the  denseness  of  the 
fleece  is  its  leading  feature,  for  it  will  be  found  that  those 
animals  with  dense  close  fleeces  are  less  subject  to  such 
diseases  as  catarrh,  running  at  the  nose  or  scouring. 
When  a  sheep  experiences  a  chill,  it  at  once  affects  the 
circulation  and  sends  the  blood  to  the  internal  organs,  and 
inflammation  or  scouring  results.  This  is  why  sheep  that 
have  open  fleeces  are  more  subject  to  such  diseases  than 
those  that  have  dense  fleeces.  Wool  is  one  of  the  best 
non-conductors  of  heat  that  we  have  and  when  it  is  on  a 
sheep  in  the  form  of  a  dense  fleece,  it  gives  them  the 
greatest  possible  protection  from  exposure.  Furthermore, 
if  the  fleece  is  not  dense,  it  is  almost  impossible  for  the 
fiber  to  be  sound — that  is,  free  from  weak  spots.  When 
a  sheep  has  been  badly  chilled  or  has  become  sick  in  any 
way  so  as  to  cause  the  pores  of  the  skin  to  contract,  a 
break  or  shrinkage  occurs  in  the  fiber  at  that  point.  The 
wool  on  a  sheep  grows  from  a  small  sac  in  the  skin  and 
it  passes  away  from  the  skin  through  a  small  opening 
which  may  be  easily  contracted  or  expanded,  according 
to  different  influences.  The  influences  are  various,  and 
for  that  reason  it  is  important  that  the  sheep  be  covered 
with  a  fleece  that  is  so  dense  as  not  to  be  affected  much 
by  external  conditions. 

167.  Length  of  Staple.  The  length  of  the  staple  is  an 
important  feature,  both  from  a  commercial  point  of  view 
and  from  the  shepherd's  standpoint.  Wools  are  generally 
known  as  short-stapled  or  the  carding  wools,  which  are 
used  for  woolen  clothes,  or  long-stapled  or  combing  wools, 
which  are  used  for  worsted  clothes.  The  long  stapled 
wools  include  the  Lincoln,  Leicester,  Cotswold,  Romney 
March  and  Black  Face  or  Highland.  The  short  stapled 
include  all  the  Downs  (Southdown,  Hampshire,  Suffolk, 
Shropshire,  Oxford)— and  the  Cheviot  and  Welsh.  The 


o   .  o  c: 


3^c  nS 


-4-»    A 

l-MfeC 

—  C  tc  x!  O  05 


A   prize   winning-   T,incoln    ram. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  LINCOLN   SHEEP. 

»1*HIS  BREED  which  originated  in  Lincolnshire,  England,  vies  with  the  Cots- 
wold  for  the  position  of  being  considered  the  largest  of  the  long  wooled 
breeds.  The  form  is  very  squarely  built  and  when  mature  the  representa- 
tives of  this  breed  are  very  heavy.  The  face  is  pure  white,  somewhat  long 
and  surmounted  by  a  tuft  of  wool.  The  body  is  exceedingly  full  in  its 
development  and  marked  specially  by  a  very  wide,  level  and  deep  fleshed 
back,  while  the  hind  quarters  are  usually  well  developed,  being  very  square 
in  form.  The  wool  is  long  in  fiber,  very  strong,  frequently  inclined  to  be 
coarse  because  of  this,  but  it  is  particularly  lustrous  and  parts  easily  in 
flakes.  Tn  yield  of  mutton  and  wool  this  breed  occupies  a  foremost  position. 


FOR    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  117 

mairafacturer  of  woolens  desires  a  short  stapled  wool,  for 
such  a  wool  has  better  felting  qualities  and  usually  more 
serrations  or  spirals  than  the  long  wools.  In  manufac- 
turing woolens  into  yarns  the  fibers  are  transversely  dis- 
posed to  the  axis  or  length  of  the  thread.  In  yarns  of 
this  nature  this  feature  is  termed  "pile."  The  points  pro- 
jecting from  the  center  should  be  numerous,  so  that  in 
felting  the  fabric  unites  and  also  when  the  cloth  comes 
to  be  finished  it  will  appear  on  top  like  short  fur  (Royal 
Agricultural  Society  Transactions,  Vol.  II,  Second  Series). 
On  the  other  hand,  in  worsted  goods,  the  object  is  to 
stretch  the  fibers  and  lay  them  parallel  with  each  other, 
and  this  produces  a  yarn,  even,  strong,  and  composed  of 
as  fine  fibers  as  possible.  In  this  process  of  manufacture, 
it  is  easy  to  see  that  the  length  and  strength  of  a  fiber 
includes  its  most  valuable  characteristics. 

168.  Classification  of  Wool.  There  is  another  market 
classification  which  is  more  definite  than  this,  but  is  very 
similar  in  nature.  The  wools  according  to  their  length 
and  strength  in  the  Chicago  market  are  divided  into 
clothing,  which  is  short,  being  about  two  inches,  or  it  is 
weak ;  then  there  is  the  delaine  class,  which  is  a  fine  wool 
from  two  to  three  inches  long  in  fiber.  The  other  class 
is  a  combing,  which  is  a  strong  wool  over  three  inches 
long.  This  classification,  it  will  be  seen,  depends  alto- 
gether on  the  length  and  strength  of  the  wool.  Consider- 
ing first,  clothing  wool,  which  is  used  for  making  flannels 
and  certain  kinds  of  rough  cloth,  shortness  in  the  fiber 
is  its  leading  characteristic.  If  the  fiber  of  a  fleece,  how- 
ever, is  four  inches  long,  it  would,  on  its  length,  be  classi- 
fied as  combing  wool,  but  if  that  fiber  has  a  weak  spot 
in  it  where  it  readily  breaks  it  passes  from  the  combing 
class  into  the  clothing  class  and  drops  two  or  more  cents 
on  the  pound  in  price.  The  delaine  wools  are  fine  wools 


118  JUDGING    SHEEP 

that  are  not  longer  than  three  inches.  They  are  used  for 
making  the  finest  kinds  of  cloth.  The  combing  wool  must 
in  the  first  place  be  strong  to  stand  the  process  of  comb- 
ing, and  with  that  the  greatest  length  is  desired.  In 
further  reference  to  the  quality  of  the  wool,  in  examining 
a  fleece,  it  should  be  noticed  that  the  length  and  the 
density  are  even  over  all  parts.  Considering  first  the 
length,  the  fleece  should  be  examined  at  the  brisket,  on 
top  of  the  back,  along  the  side  on  the  thigh  and  on  the 
belly.  As  a  rule  sheep  fitted  for  show  are  trimmed  in 
such  a  way  that  the  wool  in  front  of  the  brisket  is  much 
longer  than  that  on  top  of  the  back,  and  the  same  may  be 
said  of  that  on  the  sides.  In  an  untrimmed  sheep,  on 
which  the  wool  has  grown  naturally,  it  will  be  found  that 
there  is  a  natural  variation  in  the  length  of  the  fiber  on 
different  parts  of  the  body.  The  wool  on  the  brisket  will 
invariably  be  found  to  be  longer  than  that  on  the  top  or 
in  most  other  parts.  The  density  of  the  fleece  may  be 
determined  by  the  feel  of  it  under  the  hand.  If  the  fleece 
feels  firm  and  it  seems  to  be  compact,  it  is  likely  dense. 

169.  Quality  of  Fleece.     As  in  most  other  instances  it 
is  rare  to  find  quality  and  quantity  associated.    As  a  gen- 
eral rule  it  will  be  found  that  the  short  wooled  sheep  have 
the  finest  quality  of  wool.     In  judging  of  the  quality,  it 
should  be  noted  again  that  the  finest  wool  occurs  just 
over  the  heart  and  on  the  belly,  while  the  coarsest  grows 
on  the  thigh. 

170.  Softness.     By  pressing  the  fleece  with  the  hand 
the   softness   of   it   can   readily   be   approximated.      This 
feature  is  opposed  to  harshness.    The  softness  of  the  fleece 
not  only  depends  greatly  on  the  management,  but  also  on 
the  nature  of  the  food  and  the  soil.     In  reference  to  the 
foods,  those  that  are  rich  in  sulphur  have  been  observed 
to  have  the  most  influence  on  the  softness  of  the  wool. 


A  group  of  Cotswold  rams  shown  in  1911  by  F.  W.  Harding 
Waukesha,  Wis.  These  rams  show  the  desirable  qualities  of  their 
breed  in  long  forelocks,  upstanding  and  full  fronts,  long,  level  backs 
and  heavy  fleeces. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  COTSWOLD  SHEEP. 

»|*HIS  BREED  which  is  native  to  the  Cotswold  hills  in  Gloucestershire, 
England,  is  one  of  very  ancient  origin  and  is  one  of  those  breeds  which 
show  a  high  order  of  style  and  finish  and  uniformity,  due  to  the  long  con- 
tinued breeding  for  a  type.  The  form  is  remarkably  square,  upstanding  and 
stylish,  the  latter  being  contributed  to  in  no  small  degree  by  a  beautiful  tuft 
of  wool  growing  from  the  forehead  and  falling  luxuriantly  over  the  face. 
The  head  is  somewhat  long  in  the  face  and  may  be  white  or  slightly  mixed 
with  gray.  The  forelock  is  full  and  long,  the  ear  small,  the  neck  of  sufficient 
length  to  uphold  the  head  with  style.  The  characteristic  form  of  the  body 
is  long,  level  and  wide  with  a  strong  back.  The  hind  quarter  comes  up 
square  and  should  have  sufficient  fullness  below.  The  fleece  owing  to  its 
length  is  usually  somewhat  open  but  it  possesses  a  long,  strong  fiber  that 
yields  heavy.  The  fleece  most  desired,  while  wavy,  parts  into  locks  showing 
a  clear  pink  skin  free  from  dark  spots.  The  popularity  of  the  breed  lies 
chiefly  in  their  large  yield  of  wool  and  mutton,  and  these  features  should  be 
leading  characteristics  yet  they  should  also  be  associated  with  quality  in  all 
the  essentials.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  136. 


Border  Leicester  ram,  FAVORITE,  winner  first  prize  at  Highland  and 
Agricultural  Society,  Dumfries,  Scotland,  18!»r>.  Bred  by  and  property 
of  Andrew  Smith,  Longniddry,  Hadington,  Scotland. 


DESCRIPTION    OF   THE   LEICESTER   SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED  which  was  one  of  the  first  to  be  established  originated  in 
Leicestershire,  England.  The  first  improver,  Robert  Bakewell,  1726-1795, 
sought  chiefly  to  increase  the  early  maturity  of  this  breed  and  lessen  the  size 
of  the  bone  and  increase  the  weight  of  flesh.  The  characteristics  secured  at 
that  early  time  are  maintained  in  the  modern  representative.  The  face  is 
bare  and  pure  white,  body  square,  fore  quarters  especially  full  with  hind 
quarters  peculiarly  rounded  on  top.  There  are  usually  many  evidences  of 
quality  as  seen  in  the  fine  bone  and  the  further  fact  that  the  fiber  of  the 
fleece  is  usually  remarkably  fine  considering  its  length.  The  marked  aptitude 
of  the  representatives  of  this  breed  to  fatten  results  in  remarkable  backs 
but  frequently  the  same  aptitude  produces  a  soft  and  uneven  covering.  The 
Border  Leicester,  originating  from  an  infusion  of  Cheviot  blood,  is  generally 
stronger  in  bone  and  more  vigorous  than  the  English  type.  The  wool  of  the 
fleece  is  lustrous,  five  or  six  inches  long  and  very  soft  though  frequently  too 
open  and  sometimes  absent  on  the  belly. 


FOR    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  119 

It-4s  interesting  to  know  that  in  one  hundred  pounds  of 
wool  there  is  at  least  five  pounds  of  sulphur,  and  it  seems 
that  the  abundance  of  this  in  the  food,  has  an  effect  on 
this  feature  of  softness  in  the  fleece.  It  is  well  known 
that  soil  has  a  strong  influence  on  the  properties  of  wool, 
especially  in  regard  to  its  softness.  Clay  soils  are  con- 
sidered  to  produce  the  softest  wool,  of  the  best  lustre  and 
next  to  these  rank  sandy  soils,  and  lastly,  those  of  the 
nature  of  limestone.  Chalky  soils  have  been  noted  for 
the  deterioration  they  produce  in  the  softness  of  the  wool. 
Harshness  of  the  fleece  is  generally  due  to  the  absence  of 
yolk  which  has  resulted  from  ill  health  on  the  part  of  the 
sheep  or  from  exposure.  Considering  the  nature  of  the 
fiber  of  wool,  it  is  easy  to  understand  how  anything,  such 
as  ill  health  or  exposure  which  effects  the  secretion  of 
yolk  is  certain  to  make  the  wool  harsh.  A  fiber  of  wool 
is  covered  with  a  series  of  scales  which  overlap  in  a  sim- 
ilar manner  to  the  shingles  on  a  roof.  When  the  secre- 
tion of  yolk  is  abundant,  these  scales  fit  in  closely  to  the 
fiber,  but  when  the  secretion  of  yolk  is  stopped  from  any 
injurious  cause,  the  scales  stand  out  from  the  fiber  very 
similar  to  warped  shingles  on  a  roof.  The  result  of  this 
is  that  the  fibers  lock  and  when  you  feel  the  fleece  that 
has  fibers  of  this  nature  they  seem  to  grate  each  other 
very  similarly  to  file  shavings.  The  wool  is  harsh  and 
dry  and  when  pressed  it  gives  that  grating  feeling  which 
is  also  characteristic  of  an  unhealthy  fleece.  It  is  this 
that  produces  what  is  generally  known  as  a  cotted  fleece. 

171.  Commercial  Grades.  According  to  the  fineness  of 
fiber,  or,  in  other  words,  the  size  of  it,  wool  is  arranged 
in  three  grades — fine,  medium  and  coarse.  These  terms 
are  applied  to  all  the  classes  of  wool — -the  clothing,  delaine 
and  combing  that  go  into  the  market.  For  instance,  there 
is  fine,  medium  and  coarse  clothing;  there  is  fine  delaine 


120  JUDGING    SHEEP 

and  medium  delaine,  and  there  are  all  three  grades  of 
combing  wools.  These  terms  relating  to  the  grades  are 
used  to  designate  certain  size  of  fiber.  No  exact  measure^ 
ment  limits  the  arrangement  of  it,  but  yet  they  are  so 
defined  that  one  can  readily  tell  them  after  becoming  ac- 
quainted with  them  in  practice. 

172.  Crimp.     All  wool  is  more  or  less  crimped,  possess- 
ing what   are   sometimes   called   spirals.      The   most   im- 
portant point  in  regard  to  the  crimp  is  that  it  should  be 
regular  and  the  folds  should  not  be  thrown  on  each  other. 
Regularity  in  the  crimp  indicates  that  the  fiber  is  sound 
from  end  to  end,  but  if  is  some  places  the  crimp  is  short 
and  close,  and  in  others  long  and  wavy,  it  usually  indi- 
cates that  where  this  difference  occurs,  there  is  an  un- 
sound spot  in  the  fiber.     It  shows  that  the  growth  has 
been  irregular  and  there  is  a  close  relation  between  the 
fineness  of  the  fiber  and  the  nature  of  the  crimp.     When 
the  crimp  is  fine  and  close  almost  invariably  the  fiber  will 
be  found  to  be  of  fine  quality.  In  all  coarse  wool  it  should 
be  noted  that  the  crimp  is  open  and  wavy.    In  opening  a 
fleece  and  looking  at  it,  the  crimp  should  always  be  noted, 
for  from  it  an  estimate  may  be  made,  both  as  to  the  sound- 
ness and  fineness  of  it. 

173.  Soundness.     The  soundness  of  the  fiber  is  of  much 
importance    in   the    process    of   manufacturing   woolens. 
The  fleece  of  unsound  fibers  will  bring  four  or  five  cents 
less   than   one   that   is   strong   throughout.     To   test   the 
soundness  of  a  fiber  in  addition  to  knowing  it  by  the  char- 
acter of  the  crimp,  a  small  lock  of  wool  is  taken  between 
the  fingers  and  stretched  evenly  and  gently  until  the  un- 
soundness  or  the  strength  becomes  apparent.     The  wool 
may  break  at  the  bottom,  having  what  is  called  "weak 
bottoms,"  or  it  may  have  "weak  middles"  or  "weak 
tops,"  according  to  the  location  of  the  unsoundness,  Even- 


A  champion  Southdown  ram  shown  in  1911  by  Charles  Leet  &  Son, 
Mantua,   Ohio. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    SOUTHDOWN    SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED,  which  is  one  of  the  oldest  and  purest,  originated  on  the 
Downs  of  Sussex  in  England  and  they  represent  a  uniformity  of  type  for 
mutton  purposes  which  may  be  accepted  as  a  model  of  mutton  form.  The 
type  shown  by  this  breed  is  very  symmetrical,  compact  and  close  to  the 
ground  and  there  is  a  marked  refinement  in  every  feature  ;  the  general  struc- 
ture being  of  fine  quality  while  every  part  strongly  reflects  the  same  char- 
acteristic. The  head  is  moderate  in  size,  short  and  clearly  defined  in  its 
lineaments.  The  forehead  should  be  covered  v/ith  wool  and  the  cheeks  also 
but  this  usually  does  not  join  forward  of  the  eye.  There  is  a  complete  absence 
of  horns,  with  small  pointed  ears,  the  face  is  some  shade  of  brown  or  gray 
tint  and  the  same  markings  should  prevail  on  the  legs.  The  neck  is  very 
short  and  straight,  the  breast  broad  and  full,  the  back  is  straight,  well  cov- 
ered and  tightly  knit,  while  the  loin  is  wide,  straight  and  smooth.  The  gen- 
eral form  of  the  body  shows  much  depth  and  width  with  a  trimness  charac- 
teristic of  every  region.  The  hips  while  markedly  wide  are  not  prominent,  the 
hind  quarter  fills  out  square  and  the  twist  and  thigh  are  low  and  full.  .  The 
fleece  is  characterized  more  by  its  fineness  and  density  rather  than  the  weight 
of  the  wool  which  it  yields  as  it  is  generally  medium  in  length  and  compar- 
atively free  from  yolk.  A  marked  uniformity  in  the  quality  of  the  wool  should 
be  in  evidence  ;  that  over  the  shoulder  and  that  which  covers  the  thigh  and 
other  parts  being  very  even  in  quality.  The  best  types  of  this  breed  may  be 
accepted  as  a  model  form  for  the  block.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  131. 


Shropshire  ram,  RINGLEADER,  a  frequent  prize  winner  arid  stock  ram 
at  the  head  of  the  Altanionl  Hock,  owned  by  Dr.  G.  Howard  Davidson, 
Mill  brook,  N.  Y. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    SHROPSHIRE    SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED  having-  its  home  in  the  Downs  of  England  is  very  symmetrical 
and  stylish  in  form.  The  head  should  show  refinement  in  every  feature 
with  moderate  length.  A  characteristic  attribute  is  for  it  to  be  closely  covered 
with  wool,  the  cap  between  the  ears  being  dense,  running  to  the  bridge  of 
the  nose  and  joining  that  which  covers  the  cheek  and  lower  part  of  the  head. 
The  ears  should  be  far  apart,  pointed  and  moderate  in  thickness  and  preferably 
covered  to  the  tip  with  fine  curly  wool.  There  should  not  be  the  least  evi- 
dence of  horns  as  the  places  where  these  sometimes  appear  should  be  covered 
with  wool.  The  neck  should  be  nicely  attached  and  full  and  of  sufficient 
length  to  carry  the  head  with  peculiar  style.  The  body  to  possess  this  char- 
acteristic smoothness  and  symmetry  must  be  somewhat  circular  and  round 
ribbed.  The  back  should  be  straight,  strong-  and  knit  so  that  the  handling  of 
this  part  shows  it  to  be  smooth  and  evenly  covered.  The  loin  must  be  wide 
and  hips  not  prominent  and  the  quarters  lengthy  and  deep,  the  width  from 
the  loin  and  hips  should  be  carried  out  to  the  tail  head  and  the  fullness 
characteristic  of  this  part  should  be  maintained  on  the  outside  of  the  thigh 
and  on  the  inside  as  well,  making  the  twist  not  only  deep  but  plump  with 
flesh.  The  fleece  should  be  strong-  and  fine  in  fiber  with  all  the  density  pos- 
sible. From  the  bridge  of  the  nose  to  the  fetlock  as  well  as  along  the  belly, 
a  dense  covering  of  wool  is  desirable.  In  opening  the  fleece  the  fibers,  which 
are  generally  about  three  inches  long,  should  part  readily,  show  clear  white 
in  strong  contrast  to  the  pink  skin.  About  the  ears  or  top  of  the  head  there 
should  be  no  patches  of  black  fiber  nor  should  these  appear  distributed  any- 
where in  the  fleece.  The  characteristic  markings  for  the  face  and  legs  are 
a  rich  dark  brown  in  color.  The  best  type  of  this  breed  shows  an  unusual 
combination  of  quality  and  quantity  of  both  wool  and  mutton.  See  official 
scale  of  points,  page  131!. 


FOB    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  121 

ness  oX.all  the  desirable  characteristics  should  exist  over 
all  parts  of  the  fleece.  The  softness  should  be  apparent 
over  all  regions  and  fineness  also,  and  the  crimp  should 
in  addition  appear  uniform  throughout  the  fiber. 

174.  Condition.     The    condition    of   the    fleece    refers 
more  to  its  purity,  lustre,  brightness  and  the  quantity  and 
character  of  the  yolk.     The  condition  of  a  fleece  results 
mostly  from  correct  breeding  and  proper  management. 

175.  Purity,     Purity  refers  to  the  freedom  of  the  fleece 
from  dead  fibers  and  foreign  matter.    In  fleeces  that  are 
grown  on  sheep  that  are  exposed  to  conditions  unfavor- 
able to  thrift,  there  is  a  natural  tendency  for  the  fleece 
to  revert  to  its  original  state ;  that  is,  fibers  of  hair  begin 
to  appear  in  it  and  these  take  the  place  of  the  wool.    Very 
often  in  fleeces  grown  by  sheep  that  have  been  exposed 
there  will  be  found  a  great  many  dead  fibers  which  are 
technically  spoken  of  as  "kemp."    These  dead  fibers  are 
very  injurious  to  the  fleece  from  the  commercial  stand- 
point, because  they  do  not  absorb  dyes,  and  in  any  cloth 
that  is  made  from  such  wool  these  dead  fibers  will  retain 
the  white  and  hard  appearance  that  they  had  in  the  fleece. 

176.  Domestic  Wool.     Based  on  the  condition  of  the 
fleece  the  market  makes  a  division  of  four  kinds.     These 
are   what   is   known    as   domestic   wool,    territory   wool, 
blanket  wool  and  carpet  wool.    Domestic  wools  are  clean 
and  bright.    Wool  of  this  kind  comes  from  fleeces  that  are 
grown  under  what  might  be  termed  domesticated  condi- 
tions, that  is,  sheep  are  given  shelter,  fed  well  and  other- 
wise have   good  management.     This  results  in  a  clean, 
bright  wool  which  the  market  classifies  as  domestic  wool, 

177.  Territory  Wool.     In  contrast  to  this  is  the  ter^ 
ritory  wool.     This  wool  is  called  territory  wool  simply 
because  it  is  dirty  or  it  is  discolored.     It  is  wool  that 
comes  from  sheep  managed  and  cared  for  in  a  way  very 


122  JUDGING    SHEEP 

similar  to  that  which  is  common  in  the  territories.  The 
sheep  have  run  out  the  year  round ;  the  fleece  has  become 
full  of  sand,  straw,  chaff  and  similar  substances,  and  this 
has  filled  the  fleece  with  foreign  material. 

178.  Blanket  Wool.     The  poorest  kinds  of  wool  that 
go  to  the  market  are  known  as  carpet  wool  and  blanket 
wool.    The  worst  feature  connected  with  this  kind  of  wool 
is  the  presence  of  kemp  or  the  dead  fibers  previously  men- 
tioned.    On  account  of  these  not  freely  absorbing  the 
dyes,  this  wool  has  to  be  manufactured  into  carpets  and 
blankets.    When  the  nature  of  the  fleece  of  the  original 
sheep  is  understood  so  that  the  improvement  that  has 
been  made  through  breeding  for  many  years  becomes  ap- 
parent, it  can  easily  be  seen  that  where  sheep  are  neg- 
lected the  tendency  is  for  their  fleece  to  revert  to  the  orig- 
inal condition.    In  this  condition  the  fleece  was  made  up 
of  an  external  covering  of  hairs  and  beneath  it  an  under- 
growth of  very  finely  fibered  wool.     Domestication  by 
man  has  completely  removed  the  hair  and  gives  us  a  fine 
fleece  of  wool  which  exists  on  well  bred  sheep  today. 
Neglect  on  the  part  of  the  breeder  will  surely  result  in 
the  sheep  reverting  to  the  kind  of  fleece  that  it  at  one 
time  possessed. 

179.  Lustre.    This  refers  to  the  glistening  appearance 
of  the  fiber  when  held  to  the  light.    This  is  independent 
of  the  amount  of  yolk,  and  it  is  also  quite  distinct  from 
the  brightness  of  the  fiber.     Although  yolk  in  a  fleece 
may  add  to  the  lustre  of  the  fibre,  yet  all  lustrous  wools 
have  this  characteristic  independent  of  the  amount  of  yolk 
that  is  present.    The  chief  advantage  from  a  commercial 
standpoint  that  attaches  itself  to  lustrous  wools  is  that 
they  more  readily  take  delicate  dyes.    "Wools  in  the  mar- 
ket are  known  as  lustrous  or  dull,  according  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  fiber.    The  lustrous  fiber  has  the  appear- 


Imported  Hampshire  ram,  BARTON'S  BEST  699.  Weight,  313  Ibs. ; 
fleece  12%  Ibs.,  April  15,  1896.  At  head  of  the  Prairie  Castle  flock. 
Dropped  February  10,  1893.  Owned  by  J.  H.  Taft  Estate,  Mendon, 
Mich. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    HAMPSHIRE    SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED,  finding  its  name  from  its  native  district  in  England  is  strong 
framed  with  those  features  which  denote  constitution,  strikingly  shown. 
The  head  is  strong  and  somewhat  large  with  prominent  nose  and  ear  inclined 
to  be  thick  and  large,  yet  there  should  not  be  any  undue  coarseness  in  these 
parts.  The  neck  should  be  strong  and  deep  from  head  to  shoulder,  the  chest 
very  deep  and  wide.  The  back  strong  with  width  and  proper  covering.  The 
hind  quarter  should  be  characterized  by  fullness  both  before  and  below.  In 
general  the  frame  is  strong,  lengthy  and  close  to  the  ground  with  the  other 
attributes  which  indicate  vigor.  The  wool  of  the  fleece  is  somewhat  short, 
dense  and  strong  in  fiber.  Ruggedness  and  weight  of  form  are  desirable  yet 
these  should  be  secured  if  possible  without  extreme  coarseness  of  form  or 
fleece.  The  early  development  of  the  lambs  of  this  breed  is  a  leading  char- 
acteristic and  should  be  recognized,  consequently  a  heavy  weight  at  an  early 
age  but  not  at  the  expense  of  quality  and  breed  type  is  very  desirable.  See 
official  scale  of  points,  page  133. 


Undefeated   Oxford   ram   shown   in    1911   by   Geo.   McKerrow   &   Son. 
Pewaukee,   Wis. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  OXFORD  DOWN  SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED  originated  in  the  county  of  Oxford,  England,  and  the  type 
was  evolved  by  the  use  of  the  Cotswold  and  Hampshire.  The  origin  of 
the  type  is  shown  somewhat  in  the  modern  representatives  for  the  scale,  sub- 
stance and  back  which  they  possess  reflect  the  qualities  of  the  long  wool  line, 
while  the  dark  face,  fleece  characteristics  and  quality  of  structure  are  attri- 
butable to  the  Down  ancestry.  The  face  and  markings  are  either  gray  or 
brown.  The  head  of  the  Oxford  differs  somewhat  from  the  Shropshire  in 
being  longer  and  not  so  densely  wooled  past  the  eye,  while  the  ear  is  slightly 
larger  and  longer.  The  form  is  square  in  general  appearance,  wider  than  in 
that  of  the  other  Down  breeds  and  the  hind  quarter  square  on  top  and  below 
carrying  flesh  close  to  the  hocks.  The  fleece  is  heavy,  moderately  open  and 
the  fiber  is  long  and  strong.  When  mature  they  are  one  of  the  heaviest  of 
the  Down  breeds,  being  large  in  size  and  strong  in  frame.  See  official  scale 
of  points,  page  135. 


FOB    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  123 

ance^of  having  been  varnished,  while  a  dull  one  does  not 
show  the  least  tendency  to  glisten  when  held  in  the  light. 

180.  Brightness.     Brightness    is    quite    distinct    from 
lustre,  as  it  refers  altogether  to  the  color  of  the  wool. 
In  the  market  wools  are  said  to  be  bright  or  dark  as  they 
vary  in  this  characteristic.     The  bright  wool  is  one  that 
has  a  clear  white  color,  while  the  dark  wool  is  one  that 
has  become  discolored  from  the  soil  on  which  the  sheep 
has  ranged,  or  some  similar  source.    Brightness  is  always 
characteristic   of  domestic   wool   and  discoloration  is   a 
feature  of  all  territory  wools. 

181.  Yolk.     This  is  the  grease  or  oil  that  is  naturally 
secreted  by  the  skin.    As  before  indicated,  the  yolk  in  the 
fleece  is  an  indication  of  the  healthiness  of  the  sheep. 
The   yolk  is  secreted  in  the   skin,   but  it  passes   down 
through  the  fiber  and  finds  an  outlet  at  the  end  of  the 
fiber.    If  you  will  notice  sheep  on  certain  days  when  the 
weather  is  close  and  the  sheep  are  likely  sweating,  the 
yolk  seems  to  accumulate  on  the  end  of  the  fibre,  and  if 
you  were  to  run  your  hand  over  the  fleece  at  that  time 
you  would  find  it  became  quite  oily.    The  yolk  apparently 
comes  out  at  the  end  of  the  fibers  and  works  back  into  the 
fleece.     In  some  flocks  the  quantity  of  yolk  has  been  in- 
creased and  encouraged  by  selection  in  breeding,  so  that 
heavy  fleeces  might  be  obtained.     The  ordinary  fleece  in 
which  yolk  is  abundant  in  proper  quantity  will  lose  nearly 
one-third  through  washing  it  in  hot  water.     This  grease 
is  of  no  value  to  the  manufacturer  and  it  represents  a 
direct  loss  to  him  when  it  is  in  the  fleece  in  very  larg? 
quantities.    The  feeding  and  the  management  undoubtedly 
influence  the  amount  of  yolk.     Feeding  sheep  foods  that 
are  rich  in  oils  seems  to  further  the  secretion  of  grease 
and  especially  in  feeding  with  such  rations  as  are  gen- 
erally given  to  fattening  sheep,  the  quantity  of  yolk  s 


124  JUDGING    SHEEP 

to  increase.  In  fattening  lambs  at  the  Wisconsin  Station 
it  was  found  that  the  lambs  which  received  grain  from 
birth  invariably  sheared  heavier  fleeces  than  those  that 
had  grain  only  during  the  latter  three  months  of  fatten- 
ing. By  washing  samples  from  the  fleece  of  these^  sheep 
it  was  determined  that  the  increased  weight  of  the  fleece 
was  almost  altogether  due  to  the  increased  amount  of 
yolk  which  the  grain- fed  lambs  secreted.  The  presence 
of  yolk  in  proper  quantities  is  of  chief  importance,  be- 
cause the  fleece  becomes  soft  through  it,  and  is  made 
more  compact,  thereby  keeping  bright  and  clean  in  con- 
dition. Furthermore,  it  is  a  safe  index  of  the  thriftiness 
in  the  sheep,  though  if  present  in  excessive  quantities  and 
accumulated  in  flakes  it  indicates  undue  pampering  or 
unthriftiness  due  to  overfeeding. 


.  Cheviot  ram,  SANDY  WALKER  ;  winner  of  first  prize  at  Edinburgh, 
Morpeth,  and  the  H.  and  A.  S.  Show,  Dumfries,  1895.  Bred  by  and 
property  of  John  Elliott,  Hindhope,  Jedburgh,  Scotland. 

DESCRIPTION  OP  THE  CHEVIOT  SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED,  a  native  of  the  Cheviot  mountains  and  the  most  common 
sheep  of  Scotch  borders,  has  been  known  on  the  hills  of  Scotland  for 
more  than  200  years.  To  thrive  under  the  conditions  of  their  nativity  they 
must  naturally  possess  unusual  activity  with  strong  constitutions.  The  mod- 
ern type  exemplifies  this  fact  as  it  is  that  of  a  sheep  blocky  in  body  and 
deep,  with  short  legs.  The  face  is  bare  of  wool  from  the  ears  forward  with- 
out any  appearance  of  horns  and  pure  white,  as  on  all  other  regions  of  the 
body  excepting  the  immediate  vicinity  of  the  nostrils  and  the  hoofs  which 
should  be  black.  Being  hardy,  active  and  prolific,  they  have  a  pertness  in 
look,  and  activity  in  movement  which  is  thoroughly  characteristic  of  the 
breed.  The  manner  of  the  sheep  is  characterized  by  alertness  added  to  further 
by  a  keen  face,  bright  eye  and  active,  fine  ears.  The  chest  is  deep  with  the 
floor  of  it  close  to  the  ground,  the  girth  full,  the  back  rather  short  but  strong, 
with  a  deep  rib,  the  hind  quarter  is  low  set  but  well  developed  from  the  mut- 
ton standpoint.  The  fleece  should  be  dense  and  fine  in  texture.  The  breeders 
are  particularly  careful  that  the  quality  of  the  fleece  should  be  even  through- 
out and  free  from  kemp  or  dead  hairs  and  especially  fill  the  hand  well.  As 
constitution  is  eminently  desirable  in  these  sheep  the  evidences  of  this  should 
be  strikingly  shown  in  type  and  temperament.  See  official  scale  of  points, 
page  139. 


A    Dorset   ram    shown    in    191]    by   Nash    Bros.,    Tipton,    Ind. 

DESCRIPTION    OF  THE   DORSET    SHEEP. 

^RIGINALLY  a  mountain  breed  of  Dorsetshire  and  Summersetshire  of  the 
^  south  of  England,  this  breed  has  been  modified  considerably  in  type 
during  late  years  and  the  modern  representative  now  shows  a  form  that 
is  long,  round-bodied  and  yet  compactly  built. 

Standard  of  excellence  and  scale  of  points  of  the  Dorset  sheep,  adopted  by 
the  Continential  Dorset  Association. — Head  neat,  face  white,  norstrils  large, 
well  covered  on  crown  and  around  jaws  with  wool,  5  ;  horns,  small  and  grace- 
fully curving  forward,  rather  close  to  jaws,  5  ;  eyes,  prominent,  bright,  2 ; 
ears,  moderately  large,  covered  with  short  white  hair,  2  ;  neck,  symmetrical, 
strongly  set  on  shoulders,  gradually  tapering  to  junction  of  head,  5  ;  shoulders, 
broad  and  full,  joining  neck  forward,  and  chine  backward  with  no  depression 
at  either  point  (important),  15;  brisket,  wide  and  well  forward,  chest  full 
and  deep,  8  ;  fore  flank,  quite  full,  showing  no  depression  behind  shoulders, 
10  ;  back  and  loin,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  ribs  should  spring  with  a 
fine  circular  arch,  10  ;  quarters,  wide  and  full  with  mutton  extending  down 
to  hock,  6  ;  belly,  straight  on  under  line,  5  ;  fleece,  medium  grade,  of  even 
quality,  and  presenting  a  smooth  surface,  well  covered  on  belly  and  legs,  12  ; 
general  conformation  of  the  mutton  type,  body  moderately  lengthy,  short  legs 
placed  squarely  under  body,  appearance  attractive,  skin  pink  colored.  15.' 


FOR    MUTTON    AND    WOOL  125 


SCALE  OF   POINTS   FOE   FINE   WOOLED    SHEEP.  « 

*t*  o 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Form,  level,  deep,  stylish,  round  rather  than  square.      8 

Quality,  clean,  fine  bone;  silky  hair;  fine  skin 6 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,  fine;  broad  wrinkly  nose;  pure  white 1 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 1 

Face,  wrinkly,  covered  with  soft,  velvety  coat 1 

Forehead,  broad,  full 1 

Ears,  soft,  thick,  velvety 1 

Neck,  short,  muscular,  well  set  on  shoulders 1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder,  strong,  being  deep  and  broad 4 

Brisket,   projecting  forward,  breast  wide 1 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart;   shank  smooth  and 

fine 2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution 10 

Back,  level,  long;   round  ribbed 4 

Loin,   wide,   level 4 

Flank,  low,  making  underline  straight 2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2 

Rump,   long,   level,   wide 4 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;   shank  smooth,  fine....      2 
WOOL: 

Kind — Domestic,   clean  and  bright. 
Territory,  dirty  or  discolored. 
Carpet 
Blanket 
Hairy  or  having  dead  fibers. 

Class — Clothing,  fiber  under  two  inches  in  length  or 

unsound. 

Delaine,  fiber  two  or  three  inches  in  length. 
Combing,  fiber  over  three  inches  in  length  and 

sound. 

Grade — Fine,  medium  or  coarse. 
Quantity — Long,  dense,  even  covering,  especially  over 

crown,  cheek,  armpit,  hind  legs  and  belly 15 

Quality — Pine  fibre,  crimp  close,  regular;  even  quality 

including  tops  of  folds 15 

Condition — Bright,    lustrous,    sound,    pure,    soft,    even 
distribution  of  yolk,  with  even  surface  to  fleece.  ...    15 


Total  .100 


126  JUDGING    SHEEP 


SCALE    OF    POINTS    FOR    MUTTON    SHEEP — FOR    WETHER. 

fc«0 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE: 

Weight,  score  according  to  age 8 

Form,  long,  level,  deep,  broad,  low  set,  stylish 10 

Quality,  clean  bone,  silky  hair,  fine  skin,  light  in  offal, 

yielding  large  percentage  of  meat 10 

Condition,  deep  even  covering  of  firm  flesh  especially 
in  region  of  valuable  cuts.  Points  indicating  condi- 
tion or  ripeness  are  thick  dock,  back  thickly  cov- 
ered with  flesh,  thick  neck,  full  purse,  full  low  flank, 

plump   breast    10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Muzzle,  fine,  mouth  large,  lips  thin,  nostrils  large 1 

Eyes,  large,  clear,  placid 1 

Face,  short,  clean  cut  features 1 

Forehead,    broad,    full 1 

Ears,   fine,  erect 1 

Neck,  thick,  short,  throat  free  from  folds 1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder   Vein,    fuh 1 

Shoulder,  covered  with  flesh,  compact  on  top,  smooth.      1 

Brisket,  projecting  forward,  breast  wide 1 

Legs,  straight,  short,  wide  apart,  strong;  fore  arm  full, 

shank  smooth  and  fine 1 

BODY: 

Chest,  wide,  deep,  full,  indicating  constitution 8 

Back,  broad,  straight,  long,  wide,  thickly  fleshed,  ribs 

arched    10 

Loin,   thick,  broad,   long 10 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  far  apart,  level,  smooth 2 

Rump,  long,  level,  wide  to  tail  head 3 

Thighs,  full,  deep,  wide 3 

Twist,    plump,    deep 3 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  shank  smooth,  fine 1 

WOOL: 

Kind,   domestic,  territory,  carpet  or  blanket 

Class,   clothing;    delaine  or  combing 

Grade,  fine,  medium  or  coarse 

Quantity,  long,  dense,  even 4 

Quality,  fine,  pure;  crimp  close,  regular,  even 4 

Condition,  bright,  sound,  clean,  soft,  light 4 

Total    ,  .100 


Rambouillet  ram  lamb  imported  by  George  Harding  &  Sons,  Wauke- 
sha,  Wis.  A  frequent  first  prize  winner  in  the  state  fair  circuit  of  1899. 
Owned  by  J.  F.  Jensen,  Mount  Pleasant,  Utah. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  RAMBOUILLET  SHEEP. 

THIS  is  the  largest  breed  of  fine  wooled  sheep  and  they  have  been  estab- 
lished in  France  from  the  orginal  Merino  type  by.  generous  feeding  and 
careful  selection,  having  in  view  a  large  form  with  tendency  towards  mutton 
making  and  fleece  that  is  fine  in  fiber,  very  long  and  markedly  dense.  The 
aim  has  been  to  produce  a  fine  wooled  sheep  with  mutton  qualities.  Size  qf 
form  has  been  secured  and  where  this  possesses  sufficient  quality  and  smooth- 
ness it  represents  a  high  order  of  combination  of  wool  and  mutton  producing 
tendencies.  The  head  is  covered  with  a  dense  growth  of  wool  extending  over 
nose,  cheeck  and  around  the  eye.  The  ewe  should  be  polled  and  the  rams 
possessed  of  horns.  The  ears  are  somewhat  short,  silky  in  feeling,  due,  largely 
to  pliability  and  a  fine  growth  of  hair.  The  neck  is  somewhat  thick  but  com- 
paratively free  from  wrinkles  and  the  chest  very  deep.  The  body  should 
continue  its  depth  and  have  a  smooth  layer  of  flesh.  The  hind  quarters 
should  not  droop  but  be  characterized  by  levelness  with  a  crease  at  the  tail 
head.  The  legs  are  short,  strong  and  straight.  The  feature  of  most  decided 
merit  connected  with  this  breed  is  the  character  of  the  fleece  which  yields 
heavily  because  of  its  unusual  density  and  the  combination  of  length  and 
fineness  which  the  fiber  shows.  The  fleece  should  show  bright  and  lustrous 
with  a  uniformly  fine  crimp  extending  from  tip  to  base.  The  yolk  should  be 
free  and  not  clotted  at  any  part  of  the  fleece.  These  characteristics  should 
be  noticeable  in  all  regions  showing  it  to  be  true  and  even  in  quality  through- 
out. The  fleece  in  addition  to  extending  well  over  the  face  should  run  down 
on  the  legs  as  far  as  possible  and  make  a  complete  covering  of  the  belly. 


A     prize    winning     Merino     ewe    (Class     A)    bred     by     D.     K.     Bell. 
Rochester,    N.    Y. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DELAINE  MERINO  SHEEP. 

THIS  FAMILY  of  American  Merinos  has  been  established  by  increasing  the 
size  smoothening  the  form,  lengthening  the  fiber  and  adding  somewhat 
to  the  mutton  properties  of  the  ancestral  stock.  In  some  families  the  polled 
feature  is  an  additional  characteristic.  In  those  that  are  horned  these  should 
in  turning  keep  clear  of  the  face.  The  form  in  general  has  been  enlarged  and 
smoothened  by  the  development  of  a  tendency  to  take  on  flesh.  The  fleece 
being  comparatively  free  of  wrinkles  has  also  contributed  to  the  smoothness 
of  form  which  is  characteristic  of  the  Delaine.  As  in  the  other  type  quality 
of  bone,  skin  and  hair  and  the  addition  of  quality  of  fleece  with  fineness  in 
every  particular  should  be  mainly  characteristic.  See  official  scale  of  points, 
page  140. 

DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  AMERICAN  MERINO  SHEEP. 

THIS  BREED  with  its  fascinating  history  starting  in  Syria,  passing  into 
Greece,  from  there  to  Italy,  then  to  Spain  on  to  France  and  from  thence 
to  England  and  later  to  Australia  and  America  has  an  historical  record  for 
inherent  constitution  which  has  made  them  strong  in  type  and  very  decided 
in.  their  characteristics.  Size  and  mutton  form  are  not  characteristic  of  the 
breed  but  quality  in  every  requirement  is  a  striking  attribute.  The  face  is 
white  and  the  head  closely  capped  with  wool  extending  down  on  the  bridge 
of  the  nose  and  completely  surrounding  the  eyes.  The  ear  is  small,  pointed 
and  covered  with  wool  and  a  soft  growth  of  hair.  In  the  ram  the  horn 
should  spring  strong  and  completely  clear  of  the  face,  the  neck  is  light  and 
so  is  the  shoulder  and  a  marked  feature  is  the  depth  of  the  chest,  the  floor 
coming  down  well  between  the  fore  legs  which  are  short  and  strong.  The 
body  is  short,  the  rib  deep,  the  loin  and  hind  quarter  strong.  The  fleece 
under  careful  examination  should  be  very  dense  with  flat  surface  as  shown 
by  a  very  even  pile.  The  fiber  should  be  long,  fine,  sound  and  when  the 
fleece  is  opened  it  should  part  readily  from  end  to  end  showing  an  even  and 
free  distribution  of  yolk.  To  the  finger  and  thumb  softness  of  the  wool  should 
be  apparent,  while  to  the  eye  it  should  show  a  lustre  and  brightness  through- 
out. Where  the  wrinkles  occur  they  should  not  have  any  coarse  fibers  on 
the  tops  of  the  folds  and  the  yolk  should  not  be  clotted  in  the  creases  or 
any  portion  of  the  fleece. 

The  following  scale  of  points  is  taken  from  the  Merino  Sheep  Registry : 
"Merino  Sheep  Register — First.  Blood,  a  perfectly  authenticated  line  of 
ancestry  tracing  to  importations  made  from  Spain  prior  to  1812  without  a 
mixture.  20.  Constitution,  18.  Fleece,  quality,  quantity  and  condition  as 
shown  by  weight  of  fleece,  length  and  strength  of  staple,  crimp,  fineness  and 
brightness  of  fiber,  evenness  throughout,  freedom  from  dead  fiter  and  amount 
of  yolk,  13.  Form,  9.  Size,  rams  at  full  growth  in  breeding  condition  should 
weigh  130  pounds  or  upwards;  ewes  100  pounds,  9.  Head  medium  size, 
muzzle  clear,  nose  covered  with  glossy,  furry  hair;  eyes  bright  and  placid ; 
forehead  broad  ;  ears  soft,  thick  and  set  well  apart ;  ewes  hornless  ;  horns  on 
ram  well  turned  (set  not  too  close  to  the  head  and  neck,  nor  yet  standing 
out  too  widely  from  them)  and  free  from  black  or  dark  colored  streaks,  6 
Neck  short  on  top,  long  below  ;  strongly  set  to  head  and  shoulders  becoming 
deeper  towards  shoulder  folds,  heavier  underneath  and  extending  up  sides  of 
neck,  including  dewlap  and  apron,  5.  Legs  and  feet,  4.  General  appearance, 
good  carriage  ;  bold,  vigorous  style,  symmetrical  form  and  proper  complexion 
of  covering,  4. 


FOR    BREEDING    PURPOSES  127 

•—II.     JUDGING  SHEEP   FOR  BREEDING   PURPOSES. 

In  judging  pure  bred  sheep  in  the  breeding  classes,  the 
subject  of  breed  type  should  receive  careful  consideration. 
While  it  has  a  bearing  on  the  judging  of  all  classes  of 
pure  bred  stock,  yet  it  is  of  double  importance  in  the  pure 
bred  classes  of  sheep. 

182.  Formation  of  Types.  The  type  that  has  become 
characteristic  of  each  breed  has  arisen  from  a  variety  of 
causes.  In  all  instances  the  breeder's  skill  in  selecting  and 
mating  has  been  a  controlling  factor,  but  other  influences 
have  assisted  more  or  less.  In  some  instances,  the  func- 
tion of  the  animal  or  the  work  it  is  called  upon  to  do  has 
had  a  strong  influence.  This  is  evident  in  the  instance 
of  the  running  horse,  the  trotting  horse  and  the  dairy 
cow ;  where  the  form  or  the  type  has  developed  from  the 
function.  In  other  instances  the  environment  has  aided 
man  in  the  work  of  selection  and  this  is  notably  true  of 
sheep.  The  adaptability  of  sheep  for  different  altitudes 
of  land  enables  us  to  divide  them  into  lowland  breeds, 
upland  or  down  breeds,  and  mountain  breeds.  The  low- 
land breeds  are  large,  square  and  strongly  framed,  and 
heavy  producers  of  wool  and  mutton;  the  down  breeds 
are  smaller,  but  rounder  and  more  compact  with  fleece, 
frame  and  mutton  of  better  quality.  The  mountain  breeds 
must  have  more  vigor  and  agility  than  those  previously 
mentioned  to  earn  subsistance  under  rougher  conditions, 
so  that  the  possession  of  a  rugged  constitution,  and  active 
disposition  with  strong  limbs  and  muscles  are  of  more  im- 
portance than  the  other  features  that  are  characteristic 
of  other  types.  Man  seeks  to  fix  the  type  considered  char- 
acteristic of  the  breeds  by  elaborating  a  scale  of  points 
representing  the  features  desired  in  the  types  and  towards 
the  production  of  these  ideal  types  all  the  breeders  bend 
their  energies, 


128  JUDGING    SHEEP 

183.  Value  of  Breed  Type.     The  type   of  the  breed 
having  been  decided  upon  by  all  the  breeders,  it  should 
be  the  aim  of  the  judge  to  recognize  it,  for  aside  from 
an  acknowledgment  of  the  wishes  of  the  breeders  it  is  a 
point  of  direct  value  to  do  so.     When  a  breed  has  been 
bred  uniformly  to  a  type  for  many  years  the  type  has 
become  so  fixed  that  it  is  uniformly  transmitted.     Two 
of  the  most  powerful  factors  aiding  the  fixing  of  the  type 
of  a  breed  are  the  breeders  seeking  to  produce  the  animal 
of  ideal  type  as  represented  by  the  scale  of  points  and 
the  judges  conforming  to  it  in  the  show  ring.     The  re- 
sult is  influential  in  regard  to  breeding,  as  it  assists  in 
making  the  breed  prepotent  or  able  to  transmit  its  char- 
acteristics with  a  greater  degree  of  certainty.     Another 
feature  associated  with  the  fixing  of  the  breed  type  by 
the  assistance  of  the  breeder  and  the  judge  is  the  fact 
that  it  then  becomes  possible  to  select  breeding  stock 
from  among  the  pure  breeds  with  special  reference  to 
their  adaptability  for  a  definite  environment.     Knowing 
the  environment  that  has  assisted  in  producing  a  type  of 
any  breed  of  sheep  and  knowing  that  a  certain  type  has 
become  the  fixed  property  of  that  breed,  it  is  possible  to 
make  an  intelligent  choice  of  a  breed  for  any  environ- 
ment.    It  is  this  adaptability  for  different  environments 
that  has  given  us  over  twenty-five   different  breeds  of 
sheep,  and  as  it  is  the  possession  of  these  peculiarities 
which  unite  in  what  is  called  breed  type  that  gives  each  a 
place.     Consequently  it  is   important   that  the  breeder 
should  try  to  retain  the  type  and  in  this  secure  the  co- 
operation of  the  judge. 

184.  The  Ram.    Aside  from  the  breed  type  which  is 
outlined  in  the  scales  of  points  that  are  given  elsewhere, 
the  ram  in  type  should  show  masculinity  in  many  fea- 
tures.   In  those  breeds  that  have  horns,  the  latter  should 
spring  strong  from  the  head  and  turn  free  from  the  face. 


Class  A  Merino   ram,   DON  ALFONSO,   champion  at  New  York  State 
Fair,   1909.     Bred  and  shown  by  D.   K.   Bell,   Rochester,   N.   Y. 


From  photograph  in  the  "Australian  Pastoralists'  Review."  Merino 
ram  PRESIDENT,  bred  by  Hon.  James  Gibson ;  sold  at  Sydney,  Australia, 
for  $8,000,  July,  1896. 


Sof 

w  £ 

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C     CD 

o  U 


P,  ° 

2x; 
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FOR    BREEDING    PURPOSES  129 

In  jail  rams  the  face  should  be  broad  between  the  eyes, 
somewhat  short  with  a  Roman  nose.  The  crest  or  scrag 
should  be  thick  and  rising  and  the  neck  full.  A  point  de- 
serving emphasis  is  the  depth  of  the  chest.  The  body 
should  sink  deep  between  the  fore  legs  and  the  ribs  back 
of  the  shoulder  should  be  deep  and  round,  making  the 
girth  large  and  the  brisket  prominent  and  wide — two 
features  that  are  indicative  of  a  strong  constitution.  A 
live  fleece,  that  is,  one  that  is  springy  and  not  dead  to  the 
touch,  and  especially  a  dense  thick  covering  of  belly  wool 
is  also  indicative  of  vigor  or  constitution.  For  the  same 
reason  in  those  breeds  that  are  wooled  about  the  head, 
the  more  complete  and  dense  this  covering  is,  the  better 
it  is  liked.  The  legs  of  the  ram  should  be  straight  and 
strong  and  short.  The  movement  of  the  ram  should  be 
bold  and  active.  This  is  often  influenced  by  the  condi- 
tion. A  ram  should  never  be  so  heavy  in  flesh  as  to  be 
useless  for  service,  as  is  too  often  the  case  in  the  show 
ring.  The  flesh  should  be  even  and  firm,  and  not  gath- 
ered in  masses  or  rolls  at  any  part  of  the  body.  It  is  very 
apt  to  gather  at  the  fore  flank,  leaving  the  back  bare  or 
raw.  Excessive  condition  is  likely  to  make  the  ram  un- 
wieldy in  action  or  result  in  broken  down  pasterns  which 
usually  render  a  ram  useless  for  breeding  purposes. 

185.  The  Ewe.  The  ewe  should  be  rather  long  in  the 
face  with  fine  features.  The  neck  should  be  slender  and 
without  any  of  the  thickness  noticeable  in  the  ram.  The 
body  should  be  deep,  round  ribbed  and  specially  long  so 
as  to  provide  room  for  the  growing  lamb.  The  type  of 
the  good  milking  ewe  verges  strongly  towards  that  which 
is  typical  of  the  good  dairy  cow.  The  ewre  that  milks 
well,  and,  consequently,  rears  early  maturing  lambs  tends 
towards  the  wedge  shape,  deep  in  the  chest,  large  bodied 
and  wide  across  the  loins  and  the  hips.  The  condition  of 
the  ewe  should  not  be  such  as  to  impair  her  breeding 


130  JUDGING    SHEEP 

qualities.  Excessive  fatness  as  a  rule  is  in  this  way  in- 
jurious. The  flesh  should  be  evenly  distributed  and  not 
gathered  in  bunches  about  the  tail  head,  and  it  should  be 
firm  and  not  flabby. 

186.  Judging  Lambs  and  Flocks.  In  judging  lambs 
the  main  consideration  is  to  make  due  allowance  for  the 
difference  in  age  among  the  contestants.  As  to  the  pos- 
sibilities of  future  development,  the  judge  can  only  have 
his  own  experience  and  observation  to  guide  him.  It  may 
be  said,  how'ever,  that  it  will  be  found  as  a  rule  that  the 
short,  smooth  and  thick  lamb,  which  shows  best  at  five 
or  six  months  old  or  under,  will  rarely  develop  into  a 
sheep  of  desirable  size  when  mature ;  while  the  lamb  that 
is  more  growthy,  yet  possessing  a  well  knit  frame,  show- 
ing some  length  and  also  quality,  will  develop  both  size 
and  smoothness.  Stress  should  be  laid  on  the  strength, 
straightness  and  firmness  of  the  back  and  the  depth  of 
the  body.  In  judging  flocks  the  rams  that  head  them 
should  receive  chief  consideration,  though  this  does  not 
mean  that  the  uniformity  and  the  type  of  the  ewes  should 
be  overlooked.  An  exceptionally  good  ram  either  in  the 
showing  or  in  use  as  a  sire  will  as  a  rule  obliterate  a 
multitude  of  small  faults  in  the  remainder  of  the  flock. 
In  reference  to  the  ages  of  the  individuals  in  the  flock, 
the  nearer  they  are  to  being  yearlings  the  higher  they 
should  be  appraised.  Younger  than  this  calls  for  sup- 
positions relating  to  their  development,  and  when  they 
pass  beyond  two  years,  their  worth  in  the  flock  has  lost 
the  value  that  results  from  the  production  of  one  year, 
though  it  cannot  be  said  that  the  merit  of  the  sheep  has 
decreased  in  any  other  respect. 


Photo  by  Schreiber. 

Imported   Shropshire    ewe-lambs   owned  by   W.   L.   Elkins,    Philadel- 
phia, PC 


Southdown  ram  lambs.  The  property  of  the  Pagham  Harbour  Com- 
pany, Selsey,  Chichester,  England.  Winners  of  first  prize  at  R.  A. 
S.  K.  Show,  1898. 


Hampshire   flock    shown    in    1911    by   C.    O.    Judd,    Kent,    Ohio. 


Imported  Oxford  Down  prize  winning  ewe,  IRCHESTER  MODEL  18445, 
and  ram,  HOBB'S  RECTOR  17470.  First  prize  winners  at  the  Trans- 
Mississippi  Exposition  held  at  Omaha  1898.  The  ram  was  the  cham- 
pion sheep  of  the  Exposition.  Owned  by  Richard  Stone,  Stonington, 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR    SHEEP  131 

III.     OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR  SHEEP. 

SOUTHDOWN  SHEEP. 

STANDABD    OF    EXCELLENCE — AMERICAN    SOUTHDOWN 

RECORD,    VOL.    I,    1884. 

en 

Head — Medium  in  size  and  hornless,  fine,  carried  well  up,     | 
forehead   or   face   well  covered  with   wool,   especially     £ 
between  the  ears  and  on  the  cheeks,  and  in  the  ewe 
slightly   dished    5 

Lips  and  under  jaw  fine  and  thin 1 

Ears — Rather  small,  tolerably  wide  apart,  covered  with  fine 
hair  and  carried  with  a  lively  back  and  forth  move- 
ment    2 

Eyes — Full   and    bright 3 

Face — A  uniform  tint  of  brown,  or  gray,  or  mouse  color.  .      3 

Neck — Short,   fine   at  the   head,   but   nicely   tapering,   and 

broad  and  straight  on  top  at  the  shoulders 4 

Shoulders — Broad  and  full,  smoothly  joining  the  neck  with 

the  back 5 

Breast — Wide,  deep  and  projecting  well  forward,  the  fore- 
legs standing  well  apart 5 

Back  and  loin  broad  and  straight  from  shoulders  to  rump.      7 

Ribs — Well  arched,  extending  far  backward,  the  last  pro- 
jecting more  than  the  others 6 

Rump — Broad,  square  and  full,  with  tail  well  set  up ....      6 

Hips — Wide,  with  little  space  between  them  and  the  last 

ribs     6 

Thighs — Full  and  well  let  down  in  twist,  the  legs  standing 

well  apart    6 

Limbs — Short  and  fine  in  bone,  and  in  color  to  agree  with 

face    3 

Fore  Legs — Well  wooled  and  carrying  mutton  to  the  knees, 

but  free  from  meat  below 2 

Hind   Legs — Well   filled    with   mutton   and   wooled   to   the 

hocks,  neat  and  clean  below 2 

Belly — Straight  and  well  covered  with  wool,  the  flank  ex- 
tending so  as  to  form  a  line  parallel  with  the  back  or 
top  line  5 

Fleece — Compact,  the  whole  body  well  covered  with  moder- 
ately long  and  close  wool,  white  in  color,  carrying  some 
yolk  12 

Form — Throughout     smooth    and    symmetrical,    with    no 

coarseness  in  any  part 9 

General  Appearance — Spirited  and  attractive,  with  a  de- 
termined look,  a  proud  and  firm  step,  indicating  con- 
stitutional vigor  and  thorough  breeding 8 

Total    .  .100 


132  JUDGING    SHEEP 


SHROPSHIRE  SHEEP. 

POINTS    OF    EXCELLENCE    FOB    PURE    BRED    SHROPSHIRE 

SHEEP    RECORDED    OR    ELIGIBLE    TO    REGISTRY  w 

IN    THE   AMERICAN    SHROPSHIRE    REG- 
ISTRY ASSOCIATION  RECORD.  £ 

General  Appearance — Attractive,  indicating  breeding  and 
quality,  with  stylish  carriage  and  a  symmetrical  form, 
covered  with  dense  fleece 25 

Constitution — Robust  as  indicated  by  width  and  depth  of 
chest,  strength  and  formation  of  neck,  and  by  bold 
active  movement 10 

Size — In  breeding  condition  when  fully  matured.  Rams 
should  weigh  not  less  than  180  to  225  pounds,  and 
Ewes  should  weigh  not  less  than  125  to  170  pounds.  .  10 

Fleece  and  Skin — Fleece  of  good  length,  dense,  elastic  to 
touch,  medium  line,  free  from  black  fiber,  slightly 
crimped,  with  evenness  of  texture  throughout;  scro- 
tum Oif  rams  well  covered  with  wool.  Skin  light  cherry 
color,  clear  and  free  from  dark  spots 15 

Body — Well  proportioned,  with  shoulders  well  placed,  fit- 
ting smoothly  upon  chest,  which  should  be  deep  and 
wide,  broad  and  straight  back,  thick  loins,  well  cov- 
ered with  firm  flesh;  hind  quarters  well  finished;  twist 
deep  and  full  20 

Head  and  Neck — Head,  short,  broad  between  the  ears  and 
eyes  bold  and  masculine  in  rams,  without  horns,  well 
covered  with  wool,  ears  short  and  erect,  eyes  bright, 
color  of  face  and  ears  dark  brown.  Neck  of  medium 
length,  strong  and  masculine  (especially  in  rams), 
symmetrically  joined  to  head  and  shoulders 15 

Legs — Well  set  apart,  broad,  short,  straight,  color  dark 

brown  and  well  wooled;  pastern  strong  and  upright.  .  5 


Total    .  100 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOB   SHEEP  133 


HAMPSHIRE  DOWN. 

STANDARD  OF  EXCELLENCE  ADOPTED  BY  AMERICAN 

HAMPSHIRE    DOWN    SHEEP    BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION,    VOL.    I,    1890. 

Head — Mcderate-ly  large,  but  not  coarse;  wall  covered  with 
wool  on  forehead  and  cheeks. 

Nostrils — Wide. 

Color — Head  and  Legs — Dark  brown  or  black. 

Eyes — Prominent  and  lustrous. 

Ears — Moderately  long  and  thin  and  dark  brown  or  black 
color. 

Legs — Well  under  outside  of  body,  straight  with  good  size 
of  bone,  black. 

Neck — A  regular  taper  from  shoulders  to  hea"1,  without  any 
hollow  in  front  of  shoulders,  set  high  up  on  body. 

Shoulders — Sloping  full,  and  not  higher  than  the  line  of 
back  and  neck. 

Chest — Deep  and  full  in  the  heart  place,  with  breast  prom- 
inent and  full. 

Back — Straight  with  full  spring  of  rib. 

Loin — Wide  and  straight,  without  depression  in  front  of 
hips. 

Quarters — Long  from  hips  to  rump,  without  sloping,  and 
deep  in  thigh.  Broad  in  hips  and  rump,  with  full  hams.  In- 
side of  thighs  full. 

£ 

SCALE    OF    POINTS.  § 

Head — Size  and  shape,  5;  ears  and  eyes,  3;  color,  5;  legs     <•> 

and   feet.    2 15 

Neck,  Shoulders  and  Breast — Neck,  5;  shoulders,  10;  chest 

and  breast,  15 30 

Body — Back  and  loin,  15;  rib,  5 20 

Quarters — Length,  10;  width,  10;  twist,  5 25 

Wool — Forehead    and   cheeks,    2;    belly,    well    covered.    3; 

quality,  5 10 


Total 100 


134  JUDGING    SHEEP 


SUFFOLK  SHEEP. 

SCALE    OF    POINTS.       SUFFOLK    SHEEP    SOCIETY    FLOCK 
BOOK,   VOL.    VII,    1893.      ENGLAND. 

Head — Hornless;  face  black  and  long,  and  muzzle  moder-  « 
ately  fine,  especially  in  ewes.  (A  small  quantity  of  | 
clean  white  wool  on  the  forehead  not  objected  to.)  ft 
Ears  a  medium  length,  black,  and  fine  texture.  Eyes 

bright    and    full 25 

Neck — Moderate  length  and  well  set.      (In  rams  stronger, 

with  a  good  crest) 5 

Shoulder — Broad  and  oblique 5 

Chest — Deep  and  wide 5 

Back  and  Loin — Long,  level,   and  well  covered  with  meat 
and  muscle;  tail  broad  and  well  set  up.     The  ribs  long 

and  well  sprung,  with  a  full  flank 20 

Legs  and  Feet — Straight  and  black,  with  fine  and  flat  bone, 
Wooled  to  knees  and  hocks,  clean  below.     Fore  legs 

well  filled  with  mutton 20 

Belly;  also  Scrotum  of  Rams — Well  covered  with  wool.  ...      5 
Fleece — Moderately   short;    close,   fine   fiber,    without   ten- 
dency to  matt  or  felt  together,  and  well  defined,  i.  e., 

not  shading  off  into  dark  wool  or  hair 10 

Skin — Pine,  soft,  and  pink  color 5 


Total 100 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR   SHEEP  135 


OXFORD  DOWN  SHEEP. 

b<JALE  OF  POINTS   ADOPTED  BY   AMERICAN  OXFORD  DOWN 

SHEEP   BREEDERS   ASSOCIATION.       IN   FOUR 

DIVISIONS. 

Breed   type    30 

Constitution    25 

Mutton  form  and  quality 30 

Wool 15 

SUB-DIVISION — BREED  TYPE  OF  ANIMALS. 

Form  of  a  good  general  appearance,  made  by  a  well  bal- 
anced conformation,  free  from  coarseness  in  any  part, 
and  showing  good  style  both  at  rest  and  in  motion.  .  15 

Head  of  moderate  length  and  width  between  the  ears  and 
between  the  eyes,  and  well  covered  with  wool  over 
poll  and  down  to  the  eyes.  Color  of  face  an  even  dark 
gray  or  brown,  either  with  or  without  gray  spots  on 
tip  of  nose 6 

When  fully  matured  and  in  good  condition  rams  should 

weigh  250  to  350  pounds;  ewes,  180  to  275  pounds.  .  5 

Ears  medium  size,  not  too  thick  and  of  an  even  brown  or 

dark  gray  color 2 

Legs  short,  strong  in  bone,  flat  and  of  even  dark  gray  or 
brown  color,  placed  squarely  under  the  body  and  well 
apart  2 

CONSTITUTION. 

Large  around  the  heart  and  wide  and  full  in  the  chest.  ...    10 

The  movement  must  be  bold  and  vigorous 5 

Eyes  bold,  prominent  and  bright 4 

Skin  bright  pink  in  color 3 

Neck  strong  and  muscular  in  rams  and  well  set  on  in  both 
sexes  3 

MUTTOX  FORM  AND  QUALITY. 

Wide  and  straight  on  top  of  shoulders,  back,  loin  and  rump, 

from  base  of  neck  to  tail 15 

Full  shoulders  and  thighs,  well  meated  both  inside  and  out- 
side    5 

Flanks  well  filled  and  strong  so  as  to  make  the  lower  lines 
of  the  body  as  straight  as  possible,  and  side  lines 
straight  or  rather  full 4 

The  whole  carcass  evenly  covered  with  good,  well  marbled 

meat 6 

WOOL. 

Fleece  of  moderate  length,  close  and  of  even  quality,  cover- 
ing the  whole  carcass  well,  and  free  from  black 
patches  upon  the  body,  neck  or  head 15 


136  JUDGING    SHEEP 


COTSWOLD  SHEEP. 

STANDARD    OF   EXCELLENCE    AND    SCALE    OF    POINTS    ADOPTED 

BY    AMERICAN    COTSWOLD    ASSOCIATION,  „ 

VOL.    V,    1892 — EWES.  g 

Head — Moderately  fine,   broad  between  the  eyes  and  nos-     £j 
trils,  but  without  a  short,  thick  appearance,  and  well 
covered  on  crown  with  long  lustrous  wool 8 

Pace — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 

dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils — Wide  and  expanded.     Nose  dark 1 

Eyes — Prominent,  but  mild  looking 2 

Ears — Broad,  long,  moderately  thin  and  covered  with  short 

hair    4 

Collar — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually 
all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join — neck 
should  be  fine  and  graceful,  and  free  from  coarse  and 
loose  skin  5 

Shoulders — Broad  and  full,  and,  at  the  same  time,  joined 
so  gradually  to  the  collar  forward  and  chine  back- 
wards, as  not  to  leave  the  least  'hollow  in  either  place  8 

Pore  Legs — The  mutton  on  the  arm,  or  fore  thigh,  should 
come  quite  to  the  knee.  Leg  upright  with  heavy  bone, 
— being  clear  from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fet- 
lock and  may  be  mixed  with  gray 4 

Breast — Broad    and   well   forward,   keeping   the   legs   wide 

apart.     Girth  and  chest  full  and  deep 10 

Fore   Flank — Quite    full,    not   showing  hollow  behind    the 

shoulder 4 

Back  and  Loin — Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the 

ribs  must  spring,  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly — Straight  on  underline 5 

Quarters — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the 

hock 8 

Hock — Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist — Or  junction  inside  of  thighs  deep,  wide  and  full, 
which  with  a  broad  breast,  will  keep  the  legs  open 
and  upright .5 

Fleece — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long,  lust- 
rous wool  18 

Total    .  100 


Cotswold  ewes  from  the  flock  of  C.  E.  Ladd,  Portland,  Oregon, 
showing  the  vigor  and  thrift  of  sheep  when  under  environment  which 
favors  them  such  as  the  Willamette  Valley,  in  that  state. 


Selected  heads  to  show  the  characteristic  form  of  this  part  in  the 
breeds  represented.  The  one  to  the  left  is  photographed  from  the 
head  of  a  Cotswold  ram  owned  by  Messrs.  Geo.  Harding  &  Son,  of 
Waukesha,  Wisconsin.  This  photograph  shows  the  beautiful  forelock 
desired  in  representatives  of  this  breed.  The  head  shown  in  the  upper 
right  hand  corner  is  that  of  an  imported  Shropshire  ram  lamb  owned 
by  Craig  &  Stevenson,  Rice  Lake,  Wis.  The  head  shown  shows  not 
only  a  very  complete  covering,  but  also  much  width  between  the  eyes 
and  across  the  forehead,  while  the  ears  are  well  placed  being  far 
apart.  The  photograph  of  the  black  faced  ram's  head  which  appears 
in  the  center  is  taken  from  Scott's  "Black  Faced  Sheep,"  and  it  rep- 
resents the  head  of  "SEVENTY-TWO,"  first  prize  winner  at  the  Highland 
and  Agricultural  Society  Shows,  1883  to  1885.  The  horn  illustrates  the 
type  which  is  sought  in  representatives  of  any  of  the  horned  breeds. 


A  group   of  Leicester  ewes,   prizewinners  at  the   Highland  Agricul- 
tural   Society    Show   of   Scotland. 


*:^ 


Suffolk   ram,   a   first  prize  winner  at   the   Royal   Agricultural    Society 
Show.      Kngland. 


OFFICIAL   STANDABDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOB  SHEEP  137 


FOB  RAMS.  « 

c 

Head — Not  too  fine,  moderately  small,  and  broad  between     £ 
the  eyes  and  nostrils,  but  without  a  short,  thick  ap- 
pearance, and  in  young  animals  well  covered  on  crown 
with  long,  lustrous  wool 8 

Face — Either  white  or  slightly  mixed  with  gray,  or  white 

dappled  with  brown 4 

Nostrils — Wide  and  expanded.     Nose  dark 1 

Eyes — Prominent,   but  mild   looking 2 

Ears — Broad,  long,  moderately  thin,  and  covered  with  short 

hair    4 

Collar — Full  from  breast  and  shoulders,  tapering  gradually 
all  the  way  to  where  the  neck  and  head  join.  The  neck 
should  be  short,  thick  and  strong,  indicating  consti- 
tutional vigor,  and  free  from  coarse  and  loose  skin.  .  6 

Shoulders — Broad  and  full,  and  at  the  same  time  joined 
gradually  to  the  collar  forward,  and  chine  backward 
as  not  to  leave  the  least  hollow  in  either  place 8 

Fore  Legs — The  mutton  on  the  arm  or  fore  thigh  should 
come  quite  to  the  knee.  Leg  upright  with  heavy  bone 
— being  clear  from  superfluous  skin,  with  wool  to  fet- 
lock, and  may  be  mixed  with  gray 4 

Breast — Broad  and  well  forward,  keeping  the  legs  wide 
apart.  Girth  or  chest,  full  and  deep 10 

Fore  Flank — Quite  full,  not  showing  hollow  behind  the 
shoulder 5 

Back  and  Loin — Broad,  flat  and  straight,  from  which  the 

ribs  must  spring  with  a  fine  circular  arch 12 

Belly — Straight  on  underline 3 

Quarters — Long  and  full,  with  mutton  quite  down  to  the 

hock 8 

Hock — Should  stand  neither  in  nor  out 2 

Twist — Or  junction  inside  thighs,  deep,  wide  and  full 
which  with  a  broad  breast  will  keep  the  legs  open  and 
upright  5 

Fleece — The  whole  body  should  be  covered  with  long  lust- 
rous wool  .  18 


Total    100 


138  JUDGING    SHEEP 


WENSLEYDALE  SHEEP. 

SCALE    OF   POINTS.       WENSLEYDALE    FLOCK    BOOK,  « 

VOL.   II,    1891.      ENGLAND. 

Head — Face   dark.      Ears   dark,   and   well    set    on.      Head     £ 

broad  and  flat  between  ears.     Muzzle  strong  in  rams. 

A  tuft  of  wool  on  forehead.        Eyes  bright  and  full. 

Head  gaily  carried 20 

Neck — Moderate  length,  strong,  and  well  set  on  to  the 

shoulders  10 

Shoulders — Broad  and  oblique  5 

Chest — Deep  and  wide 10 

Wool — Bright  lustre,  curled  all  over  body,  all  alike  in 

staple  10 

Back  and  Loins — Ribs  well  sprung  and  deep.  Loin  broad 

and  covered  with  meat.  Tail  broad.  Flank  full.  ...  20 
Legs  and  Feet — Straight  and  a  little  fine  wool  below  the 

hock.     Fore  legs  set  well  apart.     Hind  legs  well  filled 

with  mutton  20 

Skin — Blue,  fine  and  soft 5 


Total 100 


DORSET  HORN  SHEEP. 

SCALE   OF   POINTS.      AMERICAN   FLOCK   RECORD   OF  - 

DORSET   HORN    SHEEP.       VOL.    II,    1894. 

General  Appearance — Head  well  up,  eyes  bright  and  alert,  u 

and  standing  square  on  legs 20 

Chest — Broad,  full,  brisket  well  forward 10 

Back — Broad,  straight,  with  well  sprung  ribs 15 

Quarters — Heavy,  square,  set  on  short  straight  legs,  well 

apart  10 

Legs — White,  with  small  light  colored  hoof 5 

Head — Small,  face  white,  nostrils  well  expanded,  nose  and 

lips  pink  in  color 5 

Neck — Short  and  round,  set  well  on  shoulders 5 

Horn — Neat,  curving  forward,  and  light  in  color 10 

Fore  Top — Go'od  and  well  covered  on  belly  and  legs 10 

Wool — Medium  quality  and  good  weight,  presenting  an 

even,  smooth,  white  surface 10 

Total   .  ..100 


Photograph    showing    serious    objections    in    a    ram.     The    hind 
is  too  straight  and  the  pasterns  broken  down. 


Flock  of  Dorset  ewes,  reproduced  from  Live  Stoi-k  Journal,  showing 
uniformity  and  type  desired  in  a  foundation  flock.  Address  of  owner 
not  given. 


A    Cheviot    ram    and    ewe    shown    in    1011    by    G.    W.    Parnell,    Win- 
gate,    1ml. 


Yearling   Rambouillet    ram.     First    prize    at    Minn 
Owned   by  Cole   Brothers,   of   Spring  Grove,    Illinois. 


State    Fair. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   07   EXCELLENCE   FOB   SHEEP  139 


CHEVIOT  SHEER 

SCALE   OF    POINTS.       CHEVIOT    SHEEP    BREEDERS    FLOCK  | 

BOOK.      U.    S.    AND   CANADA.      VOL.    I,    1893. 

Blood — Pure   bred   from   one   or   more   importations   from     u 
Scotland 15 

Constitution  and  Quality — Indicated  by  the  form  of  body; 
deep  and  large  in  breast  and  through  the  heart;  back 
wide  and  straight  and  well  covered  with  lean  meat; 
wide  and  full  in  the  thigh;  deep  in  flank;  skin  soft  and 
pink  in  color;  prominent  eyes;  healthful  countenance. 
Deficiency  of  brisket  or  fish  back  objectionable 20 

Size — In  fair  condition,  when  full  matured  rams  should 
weigh  not  less  than  200  pounds,  ewes,  150  pounds, 
(when  bred  in  America.  Imported  stock,  rams,  125  to 
150  pounds,  ewes,  100  to  125) 10 

General  Appearance — Good  carriage;  head  well  up,  elastic 
movement;  showing  symmetry  of  form  and  uniform- 
ity of  character  throughout 10 

Body — Well  proportioned;  small  bone;  great  scale  and 
length;  well  finished  hind  quarters;  thick  back  and 
loins;  standing  with  legs  well  placed  outside;  breast 
wide  and  prominent  in  front;  tail  wide  and  well  cov- 
ered with  wool 10 

Head — Long  and  broad,  and  wide  between  the  eyes;  ears 
of  medium  length  and  erect;  face  white,  but  small 
black  spots  on  head  and  ears  not  objectionable; 
straight  or  Roman  nose,  a  white  nose  objectionable, 
end  of  nose  dark  (but  never  smut  nose  on  top  with 
black  or  brown) ;  no  tuft  of  wool  on  head 10 

Neck — Medium  in  length;    thick,  and  well  placed  on  tlie 

shoulders    5 

Legs  and  Feet — Short  legs,  set  well  apart;  color  white;  no 
wool  on  legs;  fore  legs  round,  hind  legs  flat  and 
straight;  hoofs  black  and  well  shaped 5 

Covering — Body   and    belly  well    covered   with    fleece    of 

medium  length  and  good  quality 10 

Quality  of  Wool — Medium;  such  as  is  known  in  market  as 

half  combing  wool 5 

Total    .  ..  .100 


140  JUDGING    SHEEP 


DELAINE  SPANISH  MERINO  SHEEP. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS   ADOPTED  BY  THE   STANDARD  DELAINE 

SPANISH    MERINO    REGISTER.  £ 

Pure  Merino  Blood — Which  must  be  established  by  certifi-     <§ 

cate    

Constitution — Indicated  by  a  deep  chest,  long  rib  well 
arched,  giving  heart  and  lung  room,  with  great  di- 
gestive capacity  20 

Fleece — XX  and  delaine  wool.  This  includes  the  quantity 
and  quality  as  shown  by  weight  of  fleece,  the  length 
and  strength  of  staple,  crimp,  fineness  and  trueness 

of   fiber    10 

Density    of    Fleece 3 

Evenness  of  Surface 3 

Evenness  of  Crimp 3 

Length  of  Fiber 2 

Free  Flowing  Oil — Of  the  best  quality  and  the  right  quan- 
tity to  protect  the  sheep  and  preserve  the  fleece 9 

Head — Medium    size.      Ewes    showing   a    feminine    appear- 
ance;  rams,  a  masculine,  with  properly  turned  horns      4 
Eyes — Bright,  prominent  and  well  set  apart,  with  a  thick, 

soft  eye  lid   3 

Nose — Short,  broad,  with  well  expanded  nostrils,  skin  thick 
and  covered  with  thick,  furry  coating,  joining  the 

wool  one  inch  below  the  eye 4 

Ears — Medium  size,  set  well  apart,  thickly  coated 2 

Neck — Short  on  top,  deep  and  strongly  attached  to  shoul- 
ders, tapering  to  head;  rams  with  a  fold  across  the 

breast,  and  deep  neck 4 

Fleece — Covering  over  the  entire  body,  head  and  legs,  skin 

thick    and    spongy 4 

Legs — Short,   strong  and  well  apart 2 

Feet — Neatly  shaped,  thin  hoof,  well  set  under  the  leg.  .  .      4 
Quarters — Deep   and    well   rounded;    back,   broad,    straight 

and  strongly  coupled  to  quarters 10 

AY  eight — Ewes  at  maturity,  100  pounds  and  above;   rams, 

150    and    above 8 

General   Appearance — Good    carriage,    bold    and    vigorous 

style,  symmetrical  form 5 


Total    100 

Any  sheep  scaling  below  60  per  cent  in  any  point  can  not 
be  recorded. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOB  SHEEP  141 

BLACK  TOP  SPANISH  MERINO. 

SCALE   OF   POINTS.       BLACK    TOP    SPANISH    MERINO    SHEEP  „ 

REGISTER,    VOL.    Ill,    1891. 

Blood — Purely   bred   from   the   Humphrey   importation   of     £ 
Merino  sheep  from  Spain,  in  the  year  1802,  as  bred  by 
W.  R.  Dickinson,  of  Steubenville,  Ohio 

Constitution — Indicated  by  physical  development;  deep  and 
large  in  the  breast  and  through  the  heart;  broad  back; 
very  heavy  square  quarters;  skin  of  fine  texture,  and 
pinkish  in  color;  expansive  nostril;  brilliant  eye; 
healthful  countenance  and  good  feeders 15 

Size — In  good  condition,  with  fleece  of  five  months'  growth, 
full  grown  rams  should  weigh  not  less  than  175 
pounds,  and  ewes  not  less  than  120  pounds 12 

General  Appearance — Head  carried  well  up;  standing 
squarely  on  feet  and  legs;  well  rounded  body,  showing 
in  all  points  symmetry  of  form 3 

Body — Throughout  heavy  boned;  well  proportioned  in 
length;  smooth  joints;  ribs  starting  horizontally  from 
the  back  bone,  and  well  around  to  breast  bone;  breast 
bone  wide,  strong  and  prominent  in  front;  strong, 
straight  and  heavy  back  bone;  heavy  muscular  quart- 
ers, deep  through  and  squarely  formed  before  and  be- 
hind; shoulders  broad  and  flat,  and  not  projecting 
sharply  above  the  back  bone,  muscles  firm  and  heavy, 
and  body  entirely  free  from  folds.  There  may  be  a 
slight  throatiness,  and  a  small  dewlap — smaller  on  the 
ewes  than  on  the  rams 15 

Head — Wide,  medium  in  lengtft,  eyes  clear  and  bright, 
prominent  ears,  medium  in  size  and  covered  with  soft 
fur.  Ewes  should  give  no  appearance  of  horns,  while 
upon  tlhe  rams  the  horns  should  be  well  developed, 
clear  in  color,  and  symmetrically  curved,  without  ten- 
dency to  extreme  expansion 5 

Neck — Medium  in  length  and  very  heavy,  especially  with 

the  rams,  deepening  towards  the  shoulder 4 

Legs  and  Feet — Legs  medium  in  length,  set  well  apart, 
medium  bone  and  smooth  joints.  The  feet  must  be 
well  shaped,  medium  sized,  firm  and  solid 10 

Covering — Evenness  of  fleece  and  crimp;  body  and  legs 
covered  to  the  knees;  head  covered  forward  between 
the  eyes;  the  surface  should  be  free  from  hair  or  gare  8 

Quality — Medium  or  fine,  such  as  is  known  in  the  market 

as  tine  delaine 7 

Density — Shown  by  compactness  of  fleece,  which  should 
open  freely,  and  have  no  tendency  to  be  stringy  or 
knotty  7 

Liength — At  twelve  months,  growth  must  be  not  less  than 

three  inches,  and  as  near  as  may  be  of  uniform  length     8 

Oil — Evenly  distributed,  white,  soft  and  flowing  freely  from 
skin  to  surface,  forming  on  the  exterior  a  uniform 
dark  coating 6 

Total   .  100 


142  JUDGING    SHEEP 


TUNIS  OR  BROAD  TAILED  SHEEP. 

STANDARD    OF   EXCELLENCE   ADOPTED    BY    THE   AMERICAN  „ 
TUNIS    SHEEP   BREEDERS    ASSOCIATION. 

SCALE    OF    POINTS.  £ 

Blood    20 

Constitution 15 

Fleece 10 

Covering    10 

Form  and  Tail    12 

Head  and  Ears 10 

Neck     5 

Legs    6 

Size     6 

General  Appearance    6 


Total    100 

Blood — Imported  from  Tunis,  or  having  a  perfect  line  of  an- 
cestors extending  back  to  the  flock  owned  and  bred  by  Judge 
Richard  Peters  of  Belmont,  near  Philadelphia,  who  received 
his  first  pair  from  Tunis  in  1779,  and  bred  them  pure  for 
more  than  20  years. 

Constitution — Healthful  countenance,  lively  look,  head 
erect,  deep  chest,  ribs  well  arched,  round  body  with  good 
length.  Strong,  straight  back;  muscles  fine-  and  firm. 

Fleece — Medium  length,  medium  quality,  medium  quantity, 
color  tinctured  with  gray,  never  pure  white.  Evenness  through. 
out. 

Covering — Body  and  neck  well  covered  with  wool.  Legs 
bare  or  slightly  covered;  face  free  from  wool  and  covered  with 
fine  hair. 

Form  and  Tail — Body  straight  and  broad  and  well  propor- 
tioned. Small  bone;  breast  wide  and  prominent  in  front.  Tail 
the  little  end  should  be  docked,  leaving  the  fleshy  part  fan 
shaped,  or  tapering;  five  or  ten  inches  broad,  six  or  eight 
inches  long  and  well  covered  with  wool. 

Head  and  Ears — Head  small  and  hornless,  tapering  to  end 
of  nose;  face  and  nose  clean;  in  color,  brown  and  white.  Ears 
broad,  thin,  pendulous,  covered  with  fine  hair;  in  color  brown 
to  light  fawn. 

Neck — Medium  in  length,  well  placed  on  shoulders;  small 
and  tapering. 

Legs — Short.  In  color  brown  and  white;  slightly  wooled 
not  objectionable. 

Size — In  fair  condition,  when  fully  matured,  rams  should 
weigh  150  pounds  and  upwards;  ewes  120  pounds  and  up- 
wards. 

General  Appearance — Good  carriage;  head  well  up;  quick 
elastic  movements,  showing  symmetry  olf  form  and  uniformity 
of  character  throughout. 


Prize   Dorset   ewe   and   lamb,    winners   at   International    Exposition, 
Chicago,    1900.     Owned    by    J.    E.    Wing,    Mechanicsburg,    Ohio. 


Imported  Shopshire  yearling  ewes  from  the  flock  of  Craig  &  Steven- 
son,  Rice  Lake,   Wisconsin. 


JUDGING  SWINE. 


o 
>••  d 


rO      C  O 


O    - 

2  ? 

c 


55 1  « 

.£  ^  -S 

ri  <U  O 

?  c  =?? 


£    fc 


CHAPTER  IV. 

JUDGING  SWINE. 

In  judging  swine  the  butcher's  preference  must  be  the 
leading  guide  as  it  is  in  judging  all  other  classes  of  fat 
stock.  These  preferences  are  in  turn  largely  controlled 
by  the  demands  of  the  market,  so  we  find  in  some  mar- 
kets a  bacon  hog,  so  called  because  of  its  deep,  long  sides, 
is  preferred  by  the  butchers;  while  in  others  the  prefer- 
ence is  for  fat  hogs  because  there  is  demand  for  hams, 
shoulders  and  broad,  fat  backs,  and  these  features  would 
attract  the  butcher's  attention.  In  forming  an  opinion  as 
to  the  best  type  of  swine  it  is  necessary  to  keep  the  re- 
quirements of  these  two  markets  distinctly  in  view,  for 
they  have  established  for  us  two  very  distinct  market 
classes  of  hogs,  the  fat  hog  and  the  bacon  hog.  While 
every  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  butcher's  pref- 
erence, for  the  profit  of  hog  feeding  largely  lies  in  suc- 
cessfully catering  to  them,  yet  there  are  some  points  re- 
lating to  the  feeding  qualities  of  a  hog  which  demand 
consideration  in  the  joint  interests  of  the  feeder  and 
breeder.  The  evidences  of  constitution  and  vigor  are 
things  on  which  the  butcher  cannot  realize  profit,  but  the 
feeder  and  the  breeder  know  that  they  are  prime  essen- 
tials in  the  animals  required  for  their  purpose. 

I.      JUDGING   FAT   HOGS. 

187.  Form — Low,  Long,  Deep.  In  respect  to  the  form 
of  the  fat  hog,  one  of  the  leading  considerations  is  the 
weight,  though  the  market  requirements  in  this  respect 


146  JUDGIXG   SWIXE 

are  by  no  means  stable.  At  some  times  the  market  pref- 
erences are  decidedly  in  favor  of  the  hog  weighing  200 
pounds,  and  again  in  a  short  while  the  400-pound  hog 
makes  the  top  price,  but  as  a  rule  it  will  be  found  that 
the  most  profitable  weight  for  selling  is  from  200  to  300 
pounds.  This  fact  meets  the  breeders'  preferences  exactly, 
for  he  realizes  that  up  to  the  attainment  of  this  weight 
his  hogs  have  been  making  the  most  profitable  gain  for 
him.  The  influences  of  the  present  market  are  all  directed 
towards  the  development  of  a  rapidly  maturing  hog  that 
will  be  in  smooth  prime  condition  for  the  butcher  when 
it  reaches  about  250  pounds  in  live  weight.  The  hogs 
that  fatten  quickest  and  meet  the  butcher's  requirements 
for  fat  hogs  are  low,  deep  and  wide  in  form.  They  are 
compactly  built,  deep  chested,  long,  and  round-ribbed, 
with  straight  top  and  bottom  lines  sustained  by  standing 
squarely  on  strong  and  straight  legs.  Over  these  parts 
there  is  a  smoothness  that  is  indicative  of  the  proper 
development  of  form  and  flesh. 

188.  Quality — Fine   Hair;    Clean   Bone.     The   indica- 
tions of  quality  are  fine  hair  and  comparatively  light,  hard 
and  clean  looking  bone.     Fineness  of  parts  in  general  is 
an  evidence  of  quality.     Hogs  with  coarse  bone,  coarse 
hair  and  hide  are  not  the  best  breeders,  and  the  butcher 
does  not  like  them  because   of  the  large  percentage  of 
offal  which  they  dress.     In   addition  to  being  fine,  the 
hair  should  lie  close  to  the  body  and  the  skin  free  from 
undue  roughness  caused  by  scurf. 

189.  Head— Short,   Broad.     The  head  of  a  hog  that 
will  fatten  readily  is  very  similar  in  its  relative  portions 
and  parts  to  that  of  a  steer,  it  should  be  comparatively 
short  and  broad.     The  snout  should  be  of  medium  length 
with  the  face  fine  in  features. 


JUDGING    FAT    HOGS  147 

190.  Eyes — Clear,    Prominent.     The    eyes    should    be 
wide  apart  and  large  without  any  appearance  of  being 
watery.    Folds  of  fat  in  creases  about  the  eyes  are  com- 
mon, but  are  none  the  less  objectionable. 

191.  Ears — Small,  Fine  in  Texture.     The  ear  should 
be  small  in  size  and  pointed.     The  way  the  ear  is  carried 
depends  largely  on  the  parentage  of  the  hog,  being  erect 
in  the  Berkshire,  half  drooping  in  the  Poland  China  and 
wholly  pendant  in  the  instance  of  most  of  the  large  white 
hogs.     Large   and   coarse   ears   are   generally   associated 
with  heavy  and  coarse  bone  and  hide  and  consequently 
they  are  not  desirable. 

192.  Jowl— Firm,  Broad,  Neat.     The  jowl  should  be 
smooth,   firm,   broad   and   neat.     A   jowl  that   is   flabby 
owing  to  the  abnormal  accumulation  of  fat  in  this  region 
is  very  objectional,   and  the   same   may  be   said  of  the 
opposite  condition  which  produces  a  very  small  jowl  that 
is  sharp  at  the  edges.     This  region  should  not  be  so  full 
as  to  be  pendant  and  loose. 

193.  Neck — Short;    Narrow   Nape.     The   neck   in   its 
upper  part  nearest  the  head  should  spring  sharply  up- 
ward and  the  ears  should  be  comparatively  fine  or  nar- 
row at  the  nape,  and  swell  quickly  to  the  breadth  of  the 
shoulders.    It  should  be  short  and  thick  and  deep  as  well, 
merging  in  this  region  into  the  brisket  without  any  shrink- 
age.    From  the  cheeks  the  neck  should  swell  smoothly 
into  the  shoulder  vein  and  pass  from  the  shoulder  with- 
out any  noticeable  depression. 

194.  Shoulder — Full  Vein,  Level  Top.     Just  forward 
of  the  shoulder  where  the  neck  swells  most  is  the  region 
known   as  the   shoulder  vein.     Fullness   in  this  part   is 
desirable  for  it  generally  results  in  a  smoothly  covered 
and  wide  shoulder.    On  top,  the  shoulder  should  be  level, 
being  well  packed  with  flesh:  and  in  addition  it  should  be 


148  JUDGING  SWINE 

broad  and  deep.  To  fill  out  the  form  desired  there  should 
be  some  development  of  the  brisket,  though  as  a  rule 
there  is  very  little  of  this  in  the  fat  hog. 

195.  Front  Legs — Short,   Straight;   Pasterns   Strong. 

The  front  legs  should  be  short,  straight,  strong  and  taper- 
ing. The  pastern  should  be  strong  and  the  feet  com- 
paratively short  and  of  medium  size.  What  are  known 
as  "bucked  knees"  or  pasterns  are  sometimes  observable 
in  hogs  that  bend  over  in  these  parts.  Long,  slim  pasterns 
are  very  undesirable,  for  hogs  having  them  readily  break 
down  when  carrying  much  flesh.  The  fat  hog  should 
stand  firm  and  high  on  the  toes  without  any  evidence  of 
weakness  of  the  pasterns.  Viewed  from  in  front  the  leg 
should  be  straight.  A  rather  common  defect  here  is 
crooked  knees  which  come  too  close  together,  but  the 
reverse  defect  is  very  rare  among  hogs. 

196.  Chest— Low,  Wide.    The  floor  of  the  chest  should 
be  as  low  as  possible,  for  it  is  the  depth  and  width  of  this 
part  that  adds  to  the  girth.    With  width  between  the  fore- 
legs there  is  usually  width  above  on  the  shoulder,  though 
this  is  not  always  true.    The  girth  should  be  large,  for  it 
is   undesirable   to   have   any   shrinkage   just   behind   the 
foreleg  at  the  fore  flank. 

197.  Sides — Deep,  Fleshed  Evenly.    The  sides  may  be 
deep  and  yet  supported  with  a  round  rib.    Usually  depth 
of  side  is  associated  with  flatness  of  rib,  but  there  are 
many  decided  exceptions  to  this  to  be  found  among  fat 
hogs.    When  the  rib  springs  from  the  back,  well  arched, 
and   continues   to   follow   the   circumference   of   a   circle 
it  gives  the  hog  the  appearance  of  not  only  being  leggy, 
but  also  lacking  in   depth   of  body.     The  rib,  however, 
not  only  should  be  well  sprung,  but  it  should  also  be  long, 
giving   roundness   and    smoothness    of   body   with   more 
depth  than  appearance  would  indicate.     The  sides  should 


Photograph  showing  the  expression,  head  and  other  features  of 
form  characteristic  of  hogs  that  do  not  fatten  rapidly.  These  pigs 
on  grain  and  grass  gained  only  31%  pounds  while  being  fed  91  days 
in  an  experiment  by  the  Utah  Experiment  Station. 


Photograph   showing  the  head  and  form  of  a  typical  fat  hog,  also 
comfortably   disposed   for   rapid   increase   in   weight. 


Carcass  of  a  fat  hog  showing  the  division  commonly   made    and   the    relative 
prices  of  the  various  parts  in  Chicago  market. 


447 
RIBS.  PRIME  CUT 


CORNER 
GAMMON 


FORE  HOCK  THICK  SJREAKY  GAMMON  HOCK 

-Diniam  showing  various  cuts  of  a  side  of  bacon,  and  the  everego  pnoes  iwnwd  for  each  during  1897. 
(Journal  ol  Koyal  Agricultural  Society  1SWO 


JUDGING    FAT    HOGS  149 

be  ^thickly  and  evenly  fleshed.  It  is  not  uncommon  to 
notice  creases  just  behind  the  shoulders  and  at  different 
points  between  the  shoulders  and  the  hips.  This  is  an 
indication  of  uneven  fattening  with  a  poor  quality  of 
flesh  and  is  consequently  objectionable.  From  the  shoul- 
der to  the  ham  in  the  fat  hog  there  should  be  that  evenness 
of  line  which  would  permit  the  laying  of  a  straight  edge 
along  the  sides  from  one  of  these  points  to  the  other  and 
no  deviation  from  the  edge  should  be  noticed  at  any 
point.  Usually  the  development  of  the  shoulders  or  the 
hams  is  as  much  greater  as  to  leave  a  marked  depression 
behind  the  shoulder  and  forward  of  the  ham. 

198.  Back— Straight,    Broad,    Evenly   Covered  With 
Flesh.     Looking  at  the  back  from  the  side  the  top  line 
should  be  straight,  though  if  it  rises  gradually  from  the 
neck  to  the  center  of  the  back  and  there  slopes  very  grad- 
ually to  the  tail,  it  usually  carries  more  flesh  and  is  con- 
sidered  a    stronger   and   better   back.     There    certainly 
should  be  no  depression  from  shoulder  to  tail  in  the  back 
of  the  hog  that  is  in  fat  condition.     Viewing  the  back 
from  above  it  should  appear  broad  and  the  two  lines  that 
bound  it  on  each  side  should  be  carried  straight  from  the 
upper  sides  of  the  shoulder  to  the  hips.     In  addition,  the 
back  should  be  evenly  and  thickly  fleshed.     Any  tendency 
towards  what  is  called  a  fish  back,  in  which  the  center 
rises  very  sharply,  is  undesirable. 

199.  Loin— Wide,    Thick.     The    width    of    the    loin 
should  be  such  as  to  sustain  the  width  of  the  back.     In 
addition  to  being  wide  it  must  be  straight  and  thickly 
fleshed  to  fill  out  the  lines  properly.     Another  part  of  the 
body  that  should  receive  some  consideration  is  the  belly. 
The  underline  should  run  parallel  with  the  top  line;  that 
is,  the  belly  should  be  equally  as  straight  as  the  back. 
The  most  common  defect  is  a  marked  drooping  in  this 


150  JUDGING   SWINE 

region.  The  fore  flank  and  the  hind  flank  should  be 
nearly  on  the  same  level,  though  this  is  seldom  so,  unless 
the  hog  is  far  advanced  in  fattening.  A  full  and  pendant 
hind  flank  is  an  indication  of  fatness. 

200.  Hips— Smoothly  Covered  With  Flesh.     The  hips 
should  be  wide  apart,  completely  covered  with  flesh  and 
low.     Where  they  are  placed  high,  it  is  seldom  that  they 
are  smoothly  covered  with  flesh.     In  an   evenly  fleshed 
hog,  the  location  of  the  hips  is  not  apparent  to  the  eye, 
so  smoothly  are  they  covered. 

201.  Rump — Long,   Smooth.     The  width   of  the  hips 
should  be  carried  back  over  this  part.     From  the  hip  to 
the  end  of  the  body  there  should  be  as  much  length  as 
may  be  secured.     It  is  not  possible  to  find  a  hog  that  is 
exactly  level  over  this  part,   as  they  invariably  droop 
somewhat  towards  the  tail,  but  some  nevertheless  closely 
approach  exact  levelness  in  this  region. 

202.  Hams-— Wide,  Deep,  Plump,    Looking  at  the  ham 
from  tfie  side,  it  should  be  wide  from  the  stifle  to  the  end 
of  the  body  and  it  should  also  be  plump  and  full  right 
down  to  the  hock.    Viewed  from  behind,  width  from  be* 
tween  the  legs  to  the  outside  of  the  ham,  is  very  desirable. 
Perhaps  the  most  difference  in  this  part  will  be  found  in 
the  degree  to  which  the  ham  continues  plump  and  full 
towards  the  hock.     This  part  of  the  thigh  should  not  be 
bare,  but  heavy  with  flesh. 

203.  Hind    Legs— Properly    Set,    Strong.     The    most 
common  defect  of  the  hind  leg  is  a  cramped  condition  of 
the  hock.     Though  this  is  most  usually  found  in  hogs 
with  light  bone,  yet  it  is  common  among  hogs  that  other- 
wise appear  strong  in  the  limbs.     It  is  noticeable  that 
many  hogs  are  higher  behind  than  in  front,  showing  the 
line  running  from  the  hind  quarter  to  the  head,  to  be  very 
slanting.     This  is  generally  caused  by  the  undue  length 


.JUDGING    FAT    HOGS  151 

of  the  hind  legs.  The  legs  should  be  short,  strong  and 
placed  wide  apart  and  when  the  hog  moves  the  hind  and 
the  front  legs  should  pass  forward  in  a  straight  line.  An 
in  and  out  movement  of  the  legs  is  not  uncommon  and  it 
accounts  for  much  of  the  awkwardness  observable  in  the 
gait  of  fat  hogs. 

SCALE   OF   POINTS    FOR    FAT    HOGS — BARKOW.  -g 

££ 
GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  || 

Weight,  score  according  to  age.  . 6 

Form,   deep,  broad,   low,  long,  symmetrical,  compact, 

standing  squarely  on  legs. 10 

Quality,  hair  silky;  skin  fine;  bone  fine;  flesh  smooth, 

mellow,  and  free  from  lumps  or  wrinkles 10 

Condition,   deep,   even   covering  of  flesh  especially  in 

regions  of  valuable  cuts 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Snout,  medium  length,  not  coarse 1 

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright 1 

Face,  short,  cheeks  full 1 

Ears,  fine,  medium  size,  soft 1 

Jowl,  strong,  neat,  broad ,  .  . ', 1 

Neck,  thick,  medium  length ..v 1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulder,  broad,  deep,  full,  compact  on  top. 6 

Breast,  advanced,  wide . 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  bone  clean;  pasterns  up- 
right;  feet  medium  size 2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  broad,  large  girth 2 

Sides,  deep  lengthy,  full;  ribs  close  and  well  sprung  P 

Back,  broad,  straight,  thickly  and  evenly  fleshed 10 

Loin,  wide,  thick,  straight.  .-.-.-' 10 

Belly,   straight,  even .  . . 2 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  wide  apart,    smooth 2 

Rump,  long,  wide,  evenly  fleshed,  straight 2 

Ham,  heavily  fleshed,  plump,  full,  deep,  wide 10 

Thighs,  fleshed  close  to  hocks.  .  . . 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  bone  clean;  pasterns  up- 
right; feet  medium  size 2 


Total    .  .  .  .  ; 100 


152  JUDGING   SWINE 

II.     JUDGING   BACON   HOGS. 

Owing  to  the  demand  that  has  originated  in  the  mar- 
kets for  lean  meats,  the  bacon  type  of  hog  has  been 
evolved.  The  consumption  of  bacon  has  extended  greatly 
and  this  has  made  a  strong  demand  on  the  large  mar- 
kets for  the  type  of  hog  which  produces  this.  To  obtain 
a  clear  conception  of  the  type  required  it  is  essential  to 
remember  that  flesh  is  the  leading  characteristic  de- 
manded and  with  this  there  are  certain  peculiar  cuts 
which  are  quite  distinct  from  those  taken  from  the  fat 
hog. 

204.  Condition— Even  and  Thick  Fleshed.     The  condi- 
tion of  the  bacon  hog  is  a  feature  of  paramount  impor- 
tance, for  it  must  be  smooth  over  all  parts  with  a  thick 
covering  of  flesh.     It  is  very  necessary  to  understand  that 
a  thin  hog  is  not  in  any  sense  a  bacon  hog.     In  the  bacon 
hog  it  is  desirable  to  have  about  one  inch  of  fat  with  an 
abundance  of  lean  flesh  in  the  carcass.     It  is  flesh,  muscle 
or  lean  meat  that  is  desirable  and  not  in  any  sense  a  thin 
carcass. 

205.  Form — Smooth,  Long,  Level,  Deep.    An  important 
point  among  the  desirable  characteristics  of  the  bacon 
hog  is  that  of  form,  because  this  must  be  peculiar,  as 
there  are  unusual  cuts  to  be  made  from  the  carcass.     The 
side  should  be  as  long  as  possible  with  great  depth  and 
levelness  from  shoulder  to  hip.     The  shoulder  should  not 
bulge  out  and  the  hams  should  not  be  pendant  and  plump 
as  in  the  case  of  the  lard  hog.     If  a  straight  edge  is  laid 
along  the  side  of  the  typical  bacon  hog  it  should  touch 
every  point  from  the  start  of  the  shoulder  to  the  end  of 
the  hind  quarter.     Width  is  not  sought  for,  but  length 
and  depth  are  cardinal  points.     The  form  should  show  a 
striking  trimness  in  every  region,  due  to  an  even  covering 
of  smooth  flesh  without  any  soft  or  flabby  parts  and  a 


Photo   from   Ontario   Farmers'    Institute   Report. 

Photograph  showing  packers'  model  of  a   bacon  hog.     The  extreme 
length  levelness  and  smoothness  are  the  particular  features  of  this  type. 


Photo   from   Ontario   Farmers'    Institute   Report. 

Photograph  illustrating  a  pig  too  thin  for  the  bacon  market,  but  of 
desirable  type   in  other  essentials. 


Duroc-Jersey  sow,  Miss  LOGAN  18404,  a  sweepstakes  winner,  owned 
by  E.  B.  Watson,  Newton,  Iowa.  Being  close  to  the  ground  and  full 
made  and  compact,  this  sow  shows  the  leading  characteristics  of  this 
breed. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  DUROC-JERSEY  SWINE. 

Z1T  THE  National  Swine  Breeders  Convention,  held  in  1872,  the  Jersey 
«*•  swine  of  New  Jersey  and  the  Durocs  of  New  York  were  classified  in  the 
families  of  red  swine  with  similar  characteristics ;  the  Durocs  it  was  then 
stated  being  finer  in  bone  and  carcass  than  the  other  reds.  Previous  to  that 
time  the  Jersey  reds  had  been  bred  in  New  Jersey  state  for  over  fifty  years. 
The  most  popular  color  for  this  breed  is  a  deep  cherry  red  without  any 
markings.  The  type  most  approved  is  that  of  a  very  compact  hog  exceed- 
ingly smooth  in  all  parts  and  very  close  to  the  ground.  The  head  is  fine, 
the  ear  light  and  pendent,  neck  short  and  thick,  the  shoulder  full  yet 
smooth  with  the  body,  the  back  slightly  arching,  wide  and  strong.  The  hips 
deep  and  the  hind  quarter  very  plump  and  full  with  meat  yet  somewhat 
short,  the  legs  are  very  short  and  straight  allowing  the  frame  to  approach 
very  close  to  the  ground.  The  type  is  that  of  a  very  early  maturing  hog 
that  will  dress  a  high  percentage  of  valuable  cuts.  See  Official  scale  of 
points,  page  177. 


JUDGING    EACON     HOGS  153 

well  coupled  form  without  undue  coarseness.  This  trim- 
ness'should  be  observable  in  the  smoothness  by  which  the 
shoulder  and  the  quarter  join  the  side,  and  it  is  also 
brought  out  very  effectively  by  the  thick  trim  belly  which 
is  characteristic  of  the  bacon  type. 

206.  Weight.     In  reference  to  the  weight  that  is  de- 
sirable, the  packers  uniformly  prefer  a  hog  weighing  from 
170  to  200  pounds  live  weight.     This  preference  exists  in 
the  markets  of  the  world  and  most  decidedly  in  that  of 
Great  Britain  where  the  production     of     this     hog     has 
reached  its  highest  development.     It  seems  that  a  hog  of 
this  weight  in  proper  condition  offers  the  most  satisfac- 
tory cuts,  both  in  weight  and  quality. 

207.  Shoulders — Smooth,   Compact.     It  will  not   be 
necessary  to   dwell  on  the  minor  points  desired  in  the 
bacon  type,  but  merely  to  discuss  the  salient  features. 
Among  these  the  shoulders  demand  attention,  for  they 
are  much  different  in  the  ideal  bacon  hog  than  they  are 
in  the  typical  fat  hog.     The  shoulder  in  the  bacon  type 
is  not  heavy,   but   completely  free   from  roughness   and 
characterized  by  compactness.    It  should  fit  closely  to  the 
body  and  not  show  any  more  width  than  the  back  and 
hind   quarter,   thereby   adding  to  the   trimness   of  form 
which  is  eminently  desired  in  hogs  of  this  type.    The  flesh 
should  extend  well  down  on  the  leg,  indicating  muscular 
development  with  a  long  shoulder  cut. 

208.  Sides — Long,  Smooth,  Level.     The  side  is  a  very 
characteristic  point  in  the  bacon  type,  as  it  should  possess 
as  much  length  as  possible  with  smoothness  and  levelness 
from  the  beginning  of  the  shoulder  to  the  end  of  the  hind 
quarter.     The  choicest  bacon  comes  from  this  region  and 
on  this  account  there  should  be  as  much  as  possible  of 
the  dressed  weight  in  this  region.     The  upper  part  of  the 
side  should  carry  a  straight  line  from  the  shoulder  to  the 


154  JUDGING   SWINE 

hip  and  the  lower  side  should  show  almost  as  full  a  line 
running  from  the  elbow  to  the  stifle.  The  belly  should  be 
thicker  with  flesh  than  is  usual  in  the  case  of  the  fat  hog. 
In  addition  this  part  should  be  trim  in  form  and  thick 
without  any  flabbiness  or  shrinkage  at  either  the  fore  or 
hind  flank.  The  hind  quarter  of  the  bacon  type  is 
markedly  different  from  that  of  the  fat  hog,  because  the 
extreme  development  of  the  latter  is  not  considered  an 
advantage  in  the  bacon  type.  In. the  bacon  hog  the  hips 
should  be  smooth  and  proportionately  wide  to  the  rest  of 
the  body.  The  hind  quarter  should  be  long,  even  and 
straight  and  slightly  rounded  towards  the  tail.  A  pe- 
culiar feature  in  the  hog  of  this  type  is  the  gammon, 
which  is  a  cut  very  similar  to  the  ham.  This  should  be 
firm,  rounded,  tapering  and  fleshed  deep  and  low  towards 
the  hocks.  Plumpness  or  fullness  in  this  part  is  not  con- 
sidered  an  advantage ;  while  length  with  smooth  develop- 
ment of  muscle  is  a  prime  requisite. 


Poland-China  sow,  a  winner  of  many  prizes  at  state  fairs,  owned  by 
Messrs.  Risk  &  Gabbert,  Weston,  Missouri.  This  sow  shows  very 
smooth  and  is  especially  thickly  fleshed  over  shoulder,  back  and  ham, 
the  valuable  cuts  of  the  fat  hog  type.  Though  heavy,  note  how  erect 
she  stands  on  her  pasterns. 

DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    POLAND-CHINA    SWINE. 

THIS  AMERICAN  breed  of  swine  originated  in  the  Miami  Valley  of  the 
Ohio  during  the  years  intervening  between  1825  to  1840.  It  had  for 
its  ancestry  a  large  coarse  hog  that  was  broken  in  color,  being  mostly  white 
and  black.  The  improvement  of  the  last  40  years  has  resulted  in  producing 
an  exceedingly  symmetrical  hog  with  early  maturing  qualities  which  has 
been  added  to  further  by  disposition  very  favorable  to  quick  fattening.  The 
modern  type  shows  unusual  fullness  which  makes  the  width  of  the  body 
remarkable  though  giving  the  appearance  of  undue  shortness.  With  it  all 
there  is  a  quality  of  hair,  bone  and  skin  which  contributes  in  a  great  degree 
to  the  percentage  of  meat  from  the  carcass.  The  color  is  black  with  a.  few 
white  markings,  these  consisting  preferably  of  a  splash  on  the  face,  four 
white  feet  and  white  on  tip  of  the  tail.  The  coat  of  hair  should  be  thick, 
fine  and  free  from  swirls  or  spots  around  which  the  hair  seems  to  twist.  The 
head  is  small,  slightly  dished  and  runs  to  a  fine  snout.  The  ear  starts 
strong  and  straight  from  the  head  but  breaks  and  drops  about  one-third  its 
length.  The  shoulder  is  well  covered  on  top,  the  girth  full,  ribs  well 
sprung,  deep;  hind  quarter  very  full  with  deep  ham.  The  desirability  of 
plumpness  in  all  parts  should  not  lead  to  undue  shortness  of  body  nor  lack 
of  length  in  the  hind  quarters.  Straightness  in  the  latter  is  also  desirable 
as  frequently  the  drop  from  the  hip  to  the  tail  is  quite  marked.  The  legs 
should  be  straight  and  strong  and  the  pasterns  set  so  as  to  make  the  hog 
appear  to  be  standing  on  'the  very  tip  of  its  toes.  See  official  scale  of 
points,  page  161. 


Berkshire    sow,    ELPHICK'S    MATCHLESS,    a    prize    winner    owned    by 
Mr.  Edwin  Buss,  England. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE  BERKSHIRE   SWINE. 

DURING  the  last  century  this  British  breed  of  swine  has  been  the  subject 
of  high  breeding  and  careful  selection.  Writing  in  1790,  Lawrence  de- 
scribes the  Berkshire  as  being  "long  and  crooked  in  snout,  muzzle  turning 
upwards,  ears  large  and  heavy  and  inclined  to  be  pendulous,  the  body  long 
and  thick  but  not  deep,  legs  short,  bone  large  and  great  size."  In  "The 
Complete  Grazier,"  written  in  1805,  the  Berkshire  of  that  time  is  described 
as  follows :  "Color  reddish  brown,  with  brown,  or  black  spots,  sides  very 
broad,  flat  legs,  ears  large  and  pendulous  over  eyes,  body  thick,  close  and 
well  made."  The  modern  type  of  this  breed  reflects  many  changes  from  the 
old,  as  it  represents  a  hog  that  is  black  in  color  with  white  on  the  face, 
feet  and  tip  of  tail.  They  are  not  such  a  large  hog  as  those  of  the  original  stock 
as  they  are  long  in  type,  trim  without  undue  roughness  over  the  shoulder 
or  prominence  of  hips.  The  face  is  short  and  dished,  the  ears  short,  pointed 
and  erect,  jaws  full,  back  broad  and  straight,  full  over  the  shoulder,  the  loin 
thick  and  level  and  the  hams  especially  full  with  short,  strong  and  straight 
legs.  Straightness  in  lines  and  trimness  and  smoothness  over  all  parts  "are 
leading  Berkshire  characteristics  and  these  should  be  strongly  in  evidence 
along  the  back  and  especially  from  the  hock  backward  as  the  hind  quarter 
should  come  out  square  to  the  tail  and  be  full.  As  straightness  and  strength 
of  legs  are  leading  Berkshire  features,  it  should  be  noted  that  the  fore  legs 
drop  straight  without  any  crookedness  at  the  knee  and  the  hind  legs  should 
not  appear  cramped  above  the  hock.  A  thick  coat  of  black  hair  lying  close 
to  the  body  and  without  swirls  should  contribute  much  to  the  general  ap- 
pearance of  smoothness  which  is  due  in  the  main  to  an  even  covering  of 
firm  yet  mellow  flesh.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  158. 


,  JUDGING  BACON  HOGS  155 


SCALE  OF  POINTS  FOR  BACON  HOGS — BARROW. 

H« 

GENERAL  APPEARANCE:  || 

Weight,   170  to  200   Ibs.,  largely  the  result  of  thick 

cover  of  firm  flesh 6 

Form,  long,  level,  smooth,  deep 10 

Quality,  hair  fine;  skin  thin;  bone  tine;  firm,  even 
covering  of  flesh  without  any  soft  bunches  of  fat  or 

wrinkles    10 

Condition,  deep,  uniform  covering  of  flesh,  especially 

in  regions  of  valuable  cuts 10 

HEAD  AND  NECK: 

Snout,  fine 1 

Eyes,  full,  mild,  bright 1 

Face,  slim   1 

Ears,  trim,  medium  size 1 

Jowl,   light,   trim    1 

Xeck,  medium  length,  light 1 

FORE  QUARTERS: 

Shoulders,  free  from  roughness,  smooth,  compact  and 

same  width  as  back  and  hind  quarters 6 

Breast,  moderately  wide,  full 2 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong,  bone  clean;  pasterns  up- 
right; feet  medium  size  2 

BODY: 

Chest,  deep,  full  girth 4 

Back,  medium  and  uniform  in  width,  smooth 8 

Sides,  long,  smooth,  level  from  beginning  of  shoulders 
to  end  of  hind  quarters.  The  side  at  all  points 
should  touch  a  straight  edge  running  from  fore  to 

hind  quarter    10 

Ribs,  deep   2 

Belly,    trim,    firm,    thick    without    any    flabbiness    or 

shrinkage  at  flank 10 

HIND  QUARTERS: 

Hips,  smooth,  wide;  proportionate  to  rest  of  body.  .  .  . 

Rump,  long,  even,  straight,  rounded  toward  tail 2 

Gammon,  firm,  rounded,  tapering,  fleshed  deep  and  low 

towards  hocks 8 

Legs,  straight,  short,  strong;  feet  medium  size;  bone 
clean;  pasterns  upright  2 

Tctal    .  100 


156  JUDGING  SWIXE 

III.     JUDGING    SWINE    FO.R    BREEDING    PURPOSES. 

The  judging  of  sv\Tiiie  in  the  pure  bred  classes  requires 
of  the  judge  an  intimate  acquaintance  with  the  scale  of 
points  adopted  by  the  different  associations  of  the  various 
breeds.  These  scales  of  points  have  been  arranged  with 
much  labor  by  the  associations  and  consequently  they 
should  be  closely  followed.  As  they  are  published  in  full 
in  another  part  of  this  work  attention  will  be  here  given 
to  a  few  peculiar  points  that  should  be  sought  in  all 
breeds. 

209. — Boar.  In  addition  to  having  the  characteristics 
of  the  type  of  the  breed,  the  boar  should  be  strong  in 
those  traits  that  are  peculiar  to  the  sex.  The  head  ma\ 
be  slightly  inclined  to  coarseness,  the  neck  full  and  arched 
somewhat,  with  the  shoulder  heavy.  The  fore  quarters 
are  usually  slightly  heavier  than  the  hind  quarters  and 
this  distinction  grows  greater  with  age  as  the  shields  de- 
velop. Strength  of  frame  without  coarseness  in  desirable 
and  the  body  should  be  deep,  long  and  low.  Just  behind 
the  elbow  there  should  be  as  much  depth  as  possible,  as 
this  with  a  rugged  appearance  is  indicative  of  a  vigorous 
constitution.  Short  and  strong  limbs  with  straight  pas- 
terns of  a  fine  quality  should  carry  the  body  easily  and 
without  awkwardness  at  all  times. 

210.  Sow.  Omitting  consideration  of  the  breed  type 
the  sow  should  represent,  the  sex  type  is  of  first  im- 
portance. There  should  not  be  the  least  appearance  of 
coarseness — the  head  should  be  light,  neck  slim  and  neat 
and  also  inclined  to  sharpness  between  and  back  of  the 
ears.  In  the  sow  it  is  expected  that  the  hips  and  hind 
quarters  should  be  slightly  wider  than  the  fore,  though 
the  width  before  and  behind  should  be  almost  uniform. 
Length  of  body  is  specially  desirable  to  give  room  for  the 
growth  of  the  litter.  There  should  be  twelve  teats  be- 


Improved  Yorkshire  sow,  a  first  prize  winner  at  Toronto  Industrial 
Exhibition,  owned  by  J.  E.  Brethour,  Burford,  Ontario. 


DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   YORKSHIRE   SWINE. 

1*  HERE  are  three  varieties  of  Yorkshires,  namely ;  the  large,  middle  and 
•  the  small,  and  as  may  be  surmised  these  divisions  are  based  wholly  on 
size.  The  large  Yorkshire  is  decended  from  the  old  English  which  were  white 
in  color  with  a  few  black  spots  and  it  was  bred  principally  in  Yorkshire. 
Both  the  white  Chinese  pigs,  introduced  at  an  early  time  in  England,  and 
the  Neapolitan  swine  were  used  slightly  upon  the  native  stock.  The  middle 
Yorkshire  originated  by  crossing  the  small  and  large  varieties.  The  small 
Yorkshire  is  an  offshoot  of  the  large  varieties  containing  a  large  percentage 
of  Chinese  blood.  The  improved  large  Yorkshire  retains  the  hardness  and 
prolificness  of  the  old  English  hog  and  has  improved  in  symmetry,  flesh 
und  early  maturity  through  the  Chinese  cross.  They  are  strong  in  bone,  deep, 
and  long  in  body  and  of  medium  quality  throughout.  They  have  thick  bellies, 
well  mixed  meat  and  long  sides,  points  that  curers  of  bacon  value  highly. 
The  middle  or  improved  Yorkshire  are  as  heavy  as  the  large  variety  but 
are  lighter  in  bone  and  head  with  a  smaller  quantity  of  offal.  In  type  they 
are  very  similiar  to  the  large  Yorkshire,  being  long,  level  and  deep  in  car- 
cass. The  small  Yorkshire  are  finer  in  quality,  possess  more  symmetry  and 
they  are  more  compact  in  form.  These  features  contribute  to  their  early 
maturity  but  do  not  enable  them  to  attain  the  heavy  weights  of  the  others. 
All  the  varieties  are  white  in  color.  A  few  blue  spots  are  permissible  but  these 
should  not  be  covered  with  colored  hair.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  182, 


Chester  White  sow,  ALMA.,  sired  by  Coco  2223.  The  property  of 
Joseph  Cairns,  Camlachie,  Ontario,  Canada.  The  litter  of  ALMA  when 
thiee  months  old  tipped  the  scales  at  100  pounds. 

DESCRIPTION   OF  THE   CHESTER  WHITE    SWINE. 

npHIS  BREED  which  originated  in  Chester  county,  Pennsylvania,  about 
•  the  beginning  of  the  last  century  was  the  result  of  crossing  the  big 
Chinas  with  white  pigs  from  Bedfordshire,  England,  which  were  of  York- 
shire decent,  thus  giving  these  breeds  much  in  common.  The  Chester  White 
is  a  large  breed,  strong  though  fine  in  bone,  vigorous  with  very  deep  and 
lengthy  bodies.  They  should  be  pure  white  in  color  and  where  black  spots 
occur,  these  should  not  be  covered  with  colored  hair.  The  head  has  a  fine 
snout  with  broad  face  slightly  dished  and  the  ears  pendent.  The  jowl  is 
light  and  the  neck  short  and  deep.  Depth  of  chest  is  a  very  desirable  char- 
acteristic and  this  should  also  be  a  feature  of  the  body.  The  shoulder  should 
fit  snugly  to  the  body  and  its  width  should  be  almost  uniform  with  that  of 
the  body  and  hind  quarter.  Uniformity  in  these  lines  is  desirable  as  the 
girth  over  the  heart  should  be  about  equal  to  that  around  the  flank.  The 
hair  should  be  fine  and  lie  close  to  the  body  without  any  tendency  to  harsh- 
ness or  extreme  coarseness.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  174. 


FOB    BREEDING    PURPOSES  157 

ginning  well  forward  and  none  of  them  blind.  Blind 
teats  in  young  sows  do  not  protrude  as  the  normal  teats 
do,  and  when  the  sow  has  farrowed  they  usually  fail  tc 
yield  any  milk. 

In  judging  swine  the  best  plan  is  to  have  them  arranged 
in.  small  yards  so  that  they  may  be  readily  compared  and 
driven  enough  to  determine  whether  or  not  they  are 
strong  and  active  on  their  legs. 


158  JUDGING  SWINE 

IV.      OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINE. 

BERKSHIRE  SWINE, 

STANDARD   OF   EXCELLENCE   ADOPTED   BY    THE  AMERICAN  - 

BERKSHIRE    ASSOCIATION. 

Color — Black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail  and  an  ° 

occasional   splash    on   the   arm 4 

Face  and  Snout — Short;   the  former  fine  and  well  dished, 

and  broad  between  the  eyes 7 

Eye — Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark  hazel  or  gray 2 

Ear — Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined  for- 
ward with  advancing  age;  medium  size;  thin  and  soft  4 

Jowl — Full  and  heavy,  running  well  back  on  neck 4 

Neck — Short  and  broad  on  top 4 

Hair — Fine  and  soft;  medium  thickness 3 

Skin — Smooth    and    pliable 4 

Shoulder — Thick  and  even,  broad  on  top,  and  deep  through 

chest    7 

Back — Broad,  short  and  straight;   ribs  well  sprung,  coup- 
ling close  to  hips 8 

Side — Deep  and  well  let  down;  straight  on  bottom  lines.  .  6 
Flank — Well   back  and   low   down   on   leg,   making  nearly 

straight  line  with  the  lower  part  of  side 5 

Loin — Full  and  w^de    9 

Ham — Deep    and    thick,    extending   well    up   on    back,    and 

holding  thickness  well  down  to  hock 10 

Tail — Well  se-t  up  on  back;  tapering  and  not  coarse 2 

Legs — Short,    straight,    and    strong,    set    wide    apart,    with 

hoofs  erect  and  capable  of  holding  good  weight 5 

Symmetry — Well      proportioned      throughout,      depending 

largely  on  condition 6 

Condition — In  a  good  healthy,  growing  state;  not  overfed.  .  5 
Style — Attractive,   spirited,    indicative   of  thorough   breed- 
ing and  constitutional  vigor 5 

Total    100 

BERKSHIRE    SWINE. 

The  Berkshire  Society  of  Great  Britain  has  issued  to  the 
leading  Agricultural  Show  Societies  the  following  instruc- 
tions as  guides  to  judges  in  making  their  awards: 

"We  recommend  that  a  perfectly  black  face,  or  a  black  foot, 
cr  black  tail  should  disqualify  a  pig  in  the  show  yard.  White 
or  sandy  spots  on  the  top  or  sides  of  the  animal,  or  a  de- 
cidedly white  ear  should  be  disqualifications.  Any  descrip- 
tion of  coloring,  staining  or  clipping  should  also  be  a  disqualifi- 
cation. White  on  the  ear  or  under  the  throat  or  on  the  under- 
line of  the  body,  should  be  considered  objectionable.  Either 
too  much  or  too  little  white  in  the  place  of  the  recognized 
markings  should  be  an  objection,  also  to  be  noted  in  the  com- 
petition." 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   TOR    SWINE  1C9 

DESCRIPTION    OF    BERKSHIRE ARRANGED    BY    THE    NATIONAL 

ASSOCIATION   OF  EXPERT   JUDGES   OF   SWINE,    1897. 
DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Very  large  and  heavy  or  drooping  ears;  small, 
cramped  chest,  crease  hack  of  shoulders  and  over  the  back  so 
as  to  cause  a  depression  in  back  easily  noticed,  deformed  or 
crooked  legs,  feet  broken  down,  so  that  the  animal  walks  on 
pastern  joints. 

.Size. — Overgrown,  gangling,  narrow,  contracted  or  not  two- 
thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition. — Barrenness,  deformed,  seriously  diseased,  total 
blindness  from  any  cause. 

Score. — Less  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to   record. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

1. — Head  and  Face. — Head  short,  broad,  coming  well  for- 
ward at  poll,  face  short  and  fine  and  well  dished,  broad  be- 
tween the  eyes  tapering  from  eyes  to  point  of  nose,  surface 
even  and  regular. 

Objections. — Legs,  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked,  muscles  light, 
and  narrow,  jaws  narrow  or  contracted,  lower  jaws  extending 
beyond  upper;  face  Icng,  straight  between  the  eyes;  nose 
coarse,  thick  or  crooked,  or  rigid. 

2. — Eyes. — Very  clear,  rather  large,  dark,  hazel  or  gray. 

Objections. — Small,  dull,  bloodshot,  deep  set  or  obscure, 
vision  impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

3. — Ears. — Generally  almost  erect,  but  sometimes  inclined 
forward  with  advancing  age,  medium  size,  thin  and  soft. 

Objections. — Large,  coarse,  thick,  round  or  drooping,  long 
or  large  knuck,  difference  in  form,  size  or  position  one  with 
the  other,  animal  unable  to  control  their  position. 

4. — Neck. — Full,  deep,  short  and  slightly  arched,  broad  on 
top,  well  connected  with  shoulder. 

Objections.^ — Long,  flat,  lacking  in  fullness  and  depth. 

5. — Jowl. — Full,  firm  and  neat,  carrying  fullness  back  to 
shoulder  and  brisket. 

Objections. — Light,  flabby,  thin,  tucked  up  or  wrinkled. 

6. — Shoulder. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  not  extended  above 
line  of  back  and  being  as  wide  on  top  as  back,  carrying  size 
down  to  line  of  belly  and  having  lateral  width. 

Objections. — Lacking  in  depth  or  width,  thick  beyond  the 
line  of  sides  and  hams  or  extending  above  line  of  back,  heavy 
shields  on  hogs  under  eighteen  months  of  age. 

7. — Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep  and  roomy,  full  girth,  breast 
bone  curving  well  forward,  extending  back  on  level,  not  tucked 
up,  broad  between  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Flat,  narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  small  girth, 
lacking  depth  or  fullness,  breast  bone  crooked  or  tucked  up. 

8. — Back. — Broad  and  straight,  carrying  same  width  from 
shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even  and  smooth  without  creases  or 
projections  and  not  too  long. 

Objections. — Narrow,  swayed  or  hollow,  dropping  below  a 
straight  line. 


160  JUDGING   SWINE 

9.  Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full,  smooth,  firm  and  deep,  car- 
rying size  down  to  belly  and  evenly  from  ham  to  shoulder. 
Ribs  long,  strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Plat,  thin,  flabby,  not  as  full  at  bottom  as  top. 
Ribs  weak,  not  well  sprung  at  top  or  bottom. 

10. — Belly  and  Flank. — Wide,  full  and  straight  on  bottom 
line. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow  and  sagging.  Flank  thin  and 
tucked  up. 

11. — Ham  and  Rump. — Hams  broad,  full  and  long;  the 
lower  front  part  of  ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well  covered 
with  flesh,  coming  well  down  on  hock.  Rump  should  have  a 
rounding  slope  from  loin  to  root  of  tail,  same  width  as  back; 
and  filling  out  on  each  side  and  above  the  tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow,  short,  thin,  not  projecting  be-^ 
yond  and  coming  down  on  hock,  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch, 
Rump  flat,  narrow  and  too  steep, 

12. — Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  short,  straight  and  strong,  set 
wide  apart  with  hoofs  erect  and  capable  of  holding  good, 
weight. 

Objections — Legs,  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked,  muscles  light, 
pastern  long,  slim  or  flat,  fee-t  long  or  sprawling. 

13. — Tail. — Well  set  up,   fine,  tapering  and  neatly  curled. 

Objections. — Coarse  and  straight,  too  low. 

14. — Coat. — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  laying  close  to  and  cov- 
ering body  well,  net  clipped,  evenly  distribute  I  over  body. 

Objections. — Hair,  coarse,  harsh,  wavy  or  curly,  not  evenly 
distributed  over  body,  swirls  or  clipped. 

15. — Color. — Black,  with  white  on  feet,  face,  tip  of  tail  and 
an  occasional  splash  on  arm. 

Objections. — Solid  black  or  black  points,  or  white  spots  on 
body. 

16. — Size. — Large  'for  age.  Boar  two  years  and  over  not 
less  than  450  pounds,  sow  same  age  400  pounds.  Boar  eight- 
een months,  350  pounds;  sow  same  age  325  pounds.  Boar 
twelve  months  300  poiirds,  s~w  same  age  275  pounds.  Boar 
and  sow  six  months,  150  pounds. 

Objections. — Underweight,  coarse,  not  in  good  form  to  fat- 
ten. 

17. — Action  and  Style. — Action,  vigorous.  Style,  graceful 
and  attractive. 

Objections. — Dull,  sluggish  and  clumsy. 

18. — Condition. — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  or 
sores,  soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch,  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on 
and  free  from  lumps,  hair  soft  and  lying  close  to  body,  good 
feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  scabby  or  harsh,  dry  and 
or  lumpy  flesh,  too  much  fat  for  breeding.  Hair  harsh,  .dry 
and  standing  up  from  body,  poor  feeders,  deafness,  partial  or 
total. 

19. — Disposition. — Quiet  and  gentle  and  easy  to  handle. 

Objections. — Cross,    restless,    vicious    and    wild. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  161 

POLAND-CHINA 

NATIONAL  SCORE  CARD  ADOPTED  BY  THE  NATIONAL  2 

ASSOCIATION    OF    EXPERT    JUDGES    ON 

SWINE,    JUNE,    1897.  '-> 

Head     4 

Eyes 2 

Ears    2 

Neck    2 

Jowl    2 

Shoulders     6 

Chest    ,- 12 

Back  and  Loin 14 

Bides  and  Ribs 10 

Belly  and  Flank 4 

Ham  and  Rump    ,  ,  t  , 10 

Feet  and  Legs ,  ,  .  , 10 

Tail    1 

Coat   3 

Color    ,  , , 3 

Size    5 

Action  and  Style 3 

Condition 2 

Disposition    2 

Symmetry  cf  Points 3 

Total   100 

GENERAL  RULES  FOB  SCORING. 

Rule  1.  Experts  shall  not  use  fractions  other  than  the  deci- 
mal and  not  above  tenths. 

Rule  2.  Experts  shall  not  indicate  the  score  of  an  animal 
by  amount  of  cut  opposite  the  number  of  points. 

Rule  3.  Experts  shall  at  all  times  call  the  score  of  each 
division  aloud  and  the  attendant  shall  take  the  score  as  called. 

Rule  4.  Should  ties  in  scores  be  indicated  by  footings,  then 
such  ties  shall  be  determined  as  follows:  The  officers  attend- 
ing the  expert  shall  foot  the  score  on  tie  cards  of  the  following 
divisions,  7,  8,  11  and  12,  and  the  animal  scoring  the  highest 
on  the  above  divisions  shall  be  awarded  the  first  premium,  and 
the  second  highest  score,  the  second  premium.  Should  there 
be  a  tie  on  the  above  divisions  then  another  addition  of  the 
following  divisions  should  be  made,  to-wit:  divisions  6  and  9. 
Should  a  tie  exist,  then  division  1  should  be  added  to  above. 

Rule  5.  When  an  expert  who  has  scored  the  entire  class  is 
called  upon  to  award  the  sweepstakes  premium  he  shall  take 
the  highest  scoring  animal  or  animals  in  class  score  for  such 
sweepstakes  premium. 

Rule  6.  Experts  shall  not  be  required  to  score  entries  in 
class  for  sow  and  litter  of  pigs. 

Rule  7.  Experts  shall  not  be  required  to  score  pigs  under 
four  months  of  age. 

Rule  8.  When  animal  is  presented  for  score  and  the  expert 
determines  it  to  be  disqualified  he  shall  call  out  the  disquali- 
fications and  the  attendant  shall  indicate  the  same  on  card. 


162  JUDGING   SWINE 

Rule  9.  Experts  are  required  to  keep  themselves  familial 
with  the  score  card  and  details  of  this  Association. 

Rule  10.  Experts  holding  certificates  issued  by  this  Asso- 
ciation are  not  required  by  the  rules  of  this  Association  to  use 
any  standard  other  than  the  one  issued  by  this  Association. 

DESCRIPTION   OF  SCORE  CARD   FOR  POLAND-CHINAS   ISSUED  BY 

NATIONAL    ASSOCIATION    OF    EXPERT    JUDGES 

ON    SWINE,    1897. 

Head. — 4. — Head  should  be  broad,  even  and  smooth  be- 
tween and  above  the  eyes.  Slightly  dished,  tapering  even 
and  gradually  to  near  the  end  of  the  nose.  Broad  lower  jaw, 
head  inclined  to  shortness,  but  not  enough  to  give  the  ap- 
pearance of  stubby  nose.  And  in  male  a  masculine  expression 
and  appearance. 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  un- 
even and  coarse;  too  large  at  the  muzzle  or  the  head  too  short; 
not  full  or  high  above  the  eyes,  or  too  much  wrinkled  around 
or  above  the  eyes. 

Eyes. — 2. — Full,  clear,  prominent  and  expressive. 

Objections. — Dull  expression,  deep  set  or  obscure.  Sight 
impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

Ears. — 2. — Ears  attached  to  the  'head  by  a  short,  firm 
knuckle,  giving  free  and  easy  action.  Standing  up  slightly  at 
the  base  to  within  two-thirds  of  the  tip  where  a  gentle  break 
or  drop  should  occur;  in  size  neither  too  large  nor  too  small, 
but  even,  fine,  thin,  leaf  shape.  Slightly  inclined  outward. 

Objections. — Large,  floppy,  straight,  upright  or  coarse; 
knuckle  long,  letting  the  ear  drop  too  close  to  the  head  and 
face,  hindering  the  animal  of  free  use  of  the  ears. 

Neck. — 2. — Short,  wide,  even,  smooth,  well  arched.  Round- 
ing and  full  from  poll  to  shoulder,  with  due  regard  to  the  char- 
acteristics of  the  sex. 

Objections. — Long,  narrow,  thin  and  drooping  from  the 
shoulder  to  the  poll  with  unevenness  caused  by  wrinkles  or 
creases. 

Jowl. — 2. — Full,  broad,  deep,  smooth  and  firm,  carrying 
fullness  back  near  to  point  of  shoulders  and  below  line  of 
lower  jaw  so  that  lower  line  will  be  as  low  as  breast  bone  when 
head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light,  flabby,  thin  and  wedge-shaped,  deeply 
wrinkled,  not  drooping  below  line  of  lower  jaw,  and  not  car- 
rying fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulder. — 6. — Broad  and  oval  at  the  top,  showing  even- 
ness with  the  back  and  neck,  with  good  width  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom,  and  even  smoothness  extending  well  forward. 

Objections. — Narrow  at  the  top  or  bottom;  not  as  deep  as  the 
body;  uneven  width.  Shields  on  pigs  under  eight  months  of 
age,  or  showing  too  much  shield  at  any  age. 

Chest. — 12. — Large,  wide,  deep  and  full;  even  underline  to 
the  shoulder  and  sides  with  no  creases;  giving  plenty  of  room 
for  heart  and  other  organs,  making  a  large  girth,  indicating 
mucli  vitality.  Brisket  smooth,  even  and  broad,  wide  be- 
tween legs  and  extending  well  forward  showing  in  front. 

Objections. — Pinched  appearance  at  the  top  or  bottom,  or 
tucked  in  back  of  the  fore  legs;  showing  too  narrow  between 


Photo  by  Hills. 

Tamworth  sow,  KATY  BELL,  a  very  prolific  sow  that  reared  thirty- 
three  living  pigs  in  one  year,  while  in  the  herd  at  the  Iowa  State 
College. 


DESCRIPTION    OF    THE    TAMWORTH    SWINE. 

THIS  ENGLISH  breed  has  be.en  bred  with  care  during  the  past  sixty  years 
without  any  infusions  of  foreign  blood,  consequently  the  representatives 
of  this  breed  are  very  uniform  as  to  color  and  type.  The  color  should  be  a 
cherry  red  or  a  dark  chestnut  and  very  uniform  in  shade  throughout  with- 
out any  black  spots  in  skin  or  patches  of  hair  other  than  the  color  indicated. 
The  form  should  show  the  type  that  is  desired  for  bacon  production,  this 
means  a  hog  that  is  exceedingly  light  in  offal  with  a  long  trim  body  and 
especially  very  smoothly  covered  with  firm  flesh  indicating  a  desirable  mix- 
ture of  fat  and  flesh.  The  head  should  be  slim,  the  snout  fine  and  not  un- 
duly long,  the  ear  of  appropriate  size  for  the  head  with  the  neck  sharp  be- 
tween the  ears  and  light,  swelling  easily  to  cover  a  deep  shoulder  smoothly. 
Depth  of  shoulder  desirable  but  without  any  roughness.  The  shoulder  should 
not  bulge  out  beyond  the  body  or  the  hips  for  this  detracts  from  the  general 
appearance  of  trimness  and  smoothness  which  is  so  very  desirable.  The  back 
should  be  long  and  strong  with  a  gradually  rising  arch  over  the  shoulder  to 
the  loin  and  then  a  corresponding  descending  line  from  there  to  the  end  of  the 
tail.  Width  of  the  back  is  not  demanded  but  extreme  smoothness  and  an  even 
covering  of  firm  flesh  is  absolutely  essential.  The  ribs  should  drop  as  deep  as 
possible  making  the  body  appear  from  the  side  as  if  it  had  abundance  of 
depth.  The  loin  is  even  in  width  with  the  shoulder  and  back  well  covered. 
The  hind  quarter  lacks  the  width  characteristic  of  the  lard  hog  as  this  should 
not  be  any  wider  than  the  parts  which  precede  it.  Length  of  ham  or  gam- 
mon is  a  peculiar  feature  which  should  be  looked  for.  A  long  ham,  fleshed 
firmly  towards  the  hock  without  folds  of  fat  is  eminently  desired.  The  lead- 
ing features  of  the  type  throughout  are  length  and  depth  with  trimness  and 
smoothness  in  all  regions.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page  186. 


Essex    sow,    a    prize    winner    at    Toronto    Industrial    Exhibition, 
owned    by   Jos.    Featherstone,    Ontario,    Canada.      A    sow    very    typical 
of   the   breed,    being  exceptionaly  smooth   and   possessed   of  unusual 
quality. 


DESCRIPTION  OF  THE  ESSEX  SWINE 

THIS  BREED  of  swine  originated  in  the  County  of  Essex,  England,  and 
from  this  it  takes  its  name.  Loudon,  writing  in  1825,  described  the 
old  Essex  as  being  "up-eared  with  long,  sharp  head,  roach  back ;  flat,  long 
carcass  and  long  in  the  legs."  They  were  improved  by  Lord  Weston  who,  in 
1830,  purchased  in  Italy  a  Neapolitan  boar  and  two  sows  and  these  were 
crossed  on  the  native  Essex.  Extreme  refinment  resulted  with  the  loss  of 
size,  constitution  and  fecundity,  but  through  the  after  work  of  Fisher  Hobbs 
these  defects  have  been  largely  overcome.  Some  authorities  (Long)  claim 
that  the  black  Suffolk  pig  bred  in  England  at  the  present  time  is  but  an  im- 
proved Essex;  others  (Coleman)  assert  that  the  Suffolk  is  a  distinct  breed. 
However,  the  two  now  are  recognized  as  separate  breeds.  According  to  the 
standard  agreed  upon  by  the  American  association,  the  characteristics  of  the 
Essex  are  as  follows :  "Color,  black  without  any  white  whatever ;  face, 
short  and  dishing ;  ears,  small,  soft  and  standing  erect  while  young  but 
drooping  slightly  with  increasing  age ;  carcass,  long,  broad,  straight  and 
deep ;  hams,  heavy  and  well  let  down ;  bone,  fine ;  hair,  ordinarily  rather 
thin;  fattening  qualities,  very  superior.  The  type  of  the  Essex  represents 
a  very  compact  hog  of  fine  quality  and  very  stoutly  built ;  a  type  which  is  con- 
sidered to  mature  early  and  fatten  easily.  See  official  scale  of  points,  page 
170. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWIXE  163 

the  legs;  not  depth  enough  back  of  the  shoulder.  Brisket 
uneven,  narrow,  not  prominent. 

Back  and  Loin. — 14. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  car- 
rying same  width  from  shoulder  to  ham,  surface  even,  smooth, 
free  from  lumps,  creases  or  projections,  not  too  long  but  broad 
on  top,  indicating  well  sprung  ribs;  should  not  be  'higher  at  hip 
than  at  shoulder  and  should  fill  out  at  junction  wi  h  side 
so  that  a  straightedge  placed  along  at  top  of  side  will  touch 
all  the  way  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham,  should  be 
shorter  than  lower  belly  line. 

Objections. — Narrow,  creased  back  of  shoulders,  swayed  or 
hollow,  dropping  below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  wrinkled; 
too  long  or  sun-fi&h  shaped;  Icin  high,  narrow,  depressed  cr 
humped  up;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy  or  uneven,  width  at 
side  not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — 10. — Sides  full,  firm  and  deep,  free  from 
wrinkles;  carrying  size  down  to  belly;  even  from  ham  to 
shoulder;  ribs  of  good  length,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Flat,  thin,  flabby,  pinched,  not  as  full  at  bot- 
tom as  top;  drawn  in  at  shoulder  so  as  to  produce  a  crease  or 
pinched  and  tucked  up  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham;  un- 
even surface;  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank. — 4. — Belly  broad,  straight  and  full,  inii- 
cating  capacity  and  room,  being  about  the  same  or  on  a  level 
at  the  flank  with  the  under  chest  line.  Underline  straight,  or 
nearly  so,  and  free  from  flabby  appearance. 

Objections. — Belly  uneven  and  flabby,  or  apparent  locseness 
in  the  make-up.  Pinched  up  in  the  flank  or  flanked  too  high. 

Ham  and  Rump. — 10. — Hams  broad,  full,  deep  and  long 
from  rump  to  hock.  Fully  developed  above  and  below,  being 
wide  at  the  point  of  the  hip,  carrying  wilth  well  down  to  the 
lower  part  of  the  hams.  Fleshy,  plump,  rounding  fullness  per- 
ceptible everywhere.  Rump  rounding  and  gradually  sloping 
from  the  loin  to  the  root  of  the  tail.  Broad  and  well  de- 
veloped all  along  from  loin  and  gradually  rounding  to  the 
buttock;  lower  front  part  cf  ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well 
covered  with  flesh.  Even  width  of  ham  and  rump  with 
the  back,  loin  and  body.  Even  a  greater  width  as  to  females 
not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Ham  short,  narrow,  too  round  or  slim.  Not 
filled  out  above  or  below,  or  unshapely  for  deep  meat;  not 
as  wide  as  the  body,  back  cr  loin  too  tapering  or  small.  Rump 
narrow  or  pointed,  not  plump  or  well  filled  or  too  steep  from 
loin  to  the  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — 10. — Legs  medium  length,  straight,  set 
well  apart  and  squarely  under  body,  tapering,  well  muscled 
and  wide  above  knee  and  hock;  below  hock  and  knee  round 
and  tapering,  capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  animal  in  full 
flesh  without  breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture; 
pasterns  short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm,  short,  tough 
and  free  from  defects. 

Objections. — Legs  long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked;  muscles  small 
above  hock  and  knee;  bone  large,  coarse;  as  large  at  foot  as 
above  knee;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked  or  weak;  the  hocks 
turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line;  legs  too  close  together;  hoofs 


164  JUDGING   SWINE 

long,  slim  and  weak;   toes  spreading  or  crooked  or  unable  to 
bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 

Tail. — 1. — Tail  of  medium  length  and  size,  smooth  and  tap- 
ering well  and  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections. — Coarse  and  long  without  a  curl;  or  short, 
crooked  or  stubby;  or  too  small,  fine,  even,  not  tapering. 

Coat. — 3.- — Fine,  straight,  smooth,  laying  close  to  and  cov- 
ering the  body  well;  not  clipped,  evenly  distributed  over  the 
body. 

Objections. — Bristles,  hair  coarse,  harsh,  thin,  wavy  or 
curly;  swirls,  standing  up,  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown;  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body  except  belly.  Clipped 
coats  should  be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color. — 3. — Black  with  six  (6)  wlhite  points:  Tip  of  tail,  four 
white  feet  and  white  in  face,  on  the  nose  or  on  the  point  of 
lower  jaw.  All  to  be  perceptible  without  close  examination. 
Splashes  of  white  on  the  jaw,  legs  or  flank  or  a  few  spots  of 
white  on  the  body  not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Solid  black,  white  mixed  or  sandy  spots.  Spec- 
kled with  white  hairs  over  the  body;  mottled  face  of  white 
and  black;  hair  mixed,  making  a  grizzly  appearance. 

Size. — 5. — Large  for  age.  Condition,  vigor  and  vitality  to 
be  considered.  There  should  be  a  difference  between  breed- 
ing animals  and  those  kept  or  fitted  for  the  show  of  at  least 
25  per  cent  in  size.  In  show  condition,  or  when  fat,  a  two- 
year-old  boar  should  not  weigh  less  than  six  'hundred  (600) 
pounds,  and  a  sow  not  less  than  five  hundred  (500)  pounds. 
Boar  one  year  and  over,  four  hundred  (400)  pounds;  sow 
three  hundred  and  fifty  (350)  pounds.  Boar  eighteen  months, 
five  hundred  (500)  pounds;  sow,  four  hundred  and  fifty  (450) 
pounds.  Boar  and  sows  six  months  old,  not  less  than  one 
hundred  and  sixty  (160  pounds.  All  hogs  in  just  fair  breed- 
ing condition,  one-fourth  less  for  size.  The  keeping  and 
chance  that  a  young  hog  has  cuts  quite  a  figure  in  his  size 
and  should  be  considered,  other  points  being  equal.  Fine 
quality  and  size  combined  are  the  desirable. 

Objections. — Over-grown;  coarse,  flabby,  loose  appearance. 
Gangling,  hard  to  fatten;  too  fine,  undersize;  short,  stubby, 
inclined  to  chubby  fatness.  Not  a  hardy  robust  animal. 

Action  and  Style. — 3. — Action  vigorous,  easy  and  graceful. 
Style  attractive;  high  carriage;  and  in  males  testicles  should 
be  prominent  and  of  about  the  same  size,  and  yet  not  too  large 
and  pouchy. 

Objections. — Clumsy,  slow,  awkward  movement;  low  car- 
riage; waddling  or  twisting  walk.  A  seeming  tired  or  lazy 
appearance;  not  stand  erect  and  firm. 

Condition. — 2. — Healthy,  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales  and 
sores;  soft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  flesh  fine;  evenly  laid  on 
and  free  from  lumps  and  wrinkles.  Hair  soft  and  lying  close 
to  body;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy,  skin  scaly,  wrinkled,  scabby  or 
harsh,  flabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding. 
Hair  harsh,  dry  and  standing  up  from  body;  poor  feeders; 
deafness,  partial  or  total. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR   SWINE  165 

Disposition. — 2. — Lively,  easily  handled  and  seemingly  kind, 
responsive  to  good  treatment. 

Objections. — Cross,  sluggish,  restless,  wild  or  of  a  vicious 
turn. 

Symmetry  or  Adaptation  of  Points 3. — The  adaptation  of 

all  the  points,  size  and  style  combined  to  make  the  desired 
type  or  model. 

POLAND-CHINA  SWINE 

NATIONAL  BREEDERS    SCALE    OF   POINTS    AS    ADOPTED   BY  « 

THE  NATIONAL  POLAND-CHINA   BREEDERS  ASSO- 
CIATION   AT    THE    ANNUAL    MEETING    HELD  Q 
IN   CHICAGO  IN   NOVEMBER,   1886. 

Published  in  the  Poland-China  Record,  Dayton,  Ohio, 
Vol.  XVIII,  1896,  and  American  Poland-China  Record, 
Cedar  Rapids,  Iowa,  Vcl.  XI,  1890. 

Color — Dark  spotted   or  black 3 

Head — Small,  broad,  face  slightly  dished .    5 

Ears — Fine    and    drooping 2 

Jowl — Neat  and  full    2 

Xeck — Short,  full,  slightly  arched 3 

Brisket — Full     3 

Shoulder — Broad  and  deep 6 

Girth  Around  Heart 10 

Back — Straight  and  broad '."..iJT" 7 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well    sprung 7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong 7 

Belly — Wide    and    straight    4 

Flank — Well  let  down 3 

Ham — Broad,  full  and  deep 10 

Tail — Tapering  and  not  coarse 2 

Limbs — Strong,  straight  and  tapering 1 

Coat — Thick  and  soft 3 

Action — Prompt,  easy  and  graceful    5 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  pcints  to  each  other.  5 

Total 100 

DETAILED   DrSCRIPTiOX. 

Color. — Black  or  dark  spotted,  with  white  points.  (Sandy 
spots  and  speckled  color  shall  not  argue  impurity  of  blood,  but 
are  not  desirable.) 

Objections. — Solid  black  or  with  more  sandy  than  black  hairs 
over  body. 

Head. — Short,  broad  between  eyes,  and  nicely  tapering  from 
eyes  to  point  of  nose;  face  slightly  dished,  cheeks  full. 

Objections. — Head  coarse,  long  and  narrow;  face  too  much, 
dished;  snout  coarse  and  thick. 

Ears. — Drooping,  fine  and  silky;  pointing  forward  and  a 
little  outward;  well  proportioned  to  size  of  body. 

Objections. — Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping;  lying  too 
near  the  face;  stiff,  erect  or  too  round. 

Jowl. — Full,  firm  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  well  back  to 
shculder  and  brisket. 

Objections. — Flabby;  light;  thin  in  cheeks,  tucking  up  under 
the  neck. 


166  JUDGING  SW'NE 

Neck. — Full,  deep,  short,  and  slightly  arched. 

Objections. — Long,  fiat;  lacking  in  fullness  or  depth. 

Brisket. — Full,  well  let  down,  extending  well  forward  and  on 
line  with  belly. 

Objections. — Narrow  or  tucked  up. 

Shoulders. — Broad,  deep;  thickness  in  proportion  to  sides 
and  'hams,  full  and  even  on  top. 

Objections. — Lacking  in  depth  cr  width;  thick  beyond  the 
lines  of  the  sides  and  hams;  blade  too  prominent. 

Girth  Around  Heart. — Full  back  of  shoulders,  ribs  extend- 
ing well  down;  wide  and  full  back  of  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Less  than  flank  measure  or  length  of  body  from 
top  of  head  to  root  of  tail,  or  creased  back  of  shoulders. 

Back. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  width 
well  back  to  hams,  and  cf  medium  length. 

Objections. — Narrow,  creasing  back  of  shoulders;  narrow 
across  loins;  swayed;  too  long;  sunfish  shaped. 

Loin. — Broad,  strong  and  full. 

Objections. — Narrow,  weak. 

Sides. — Full,  deep;    carrying  sides  well  down  and  back. 

Objections. — Too  round  or  flat;  shallow  or  thin  at  the  flank. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung  and  long;    carrying  fullness  well  back. 

Objections. — Too  flat,  curve  of  the  ribs  too  short. 

Belly. — Wide  and  straight. 

Objections. — Sagging,    narrow. 

Flank. — Well  let  down  and  full. 

Objections. — Thin  and  tucked  in;  cut  up  too  high. 

Ham. — Full,  broad,  deep,  holding  width  and  coming  well 
over  back. 

Objections. — Narrow,  short,  too  steep  at  the  rump  and  cut 
up  too  high  in  the  crotch. 

Tail. — Well  set  on;  small,  smooth  and  well  tapered. 

Objections. — Coarse,  large,  too  prominent  at  the  root. 

Limbs. — Medium  length;  well  set  apart  ani  well  tapered; 
bone  firm  and  flinty;  not  coarse;  muscles  full  above  knee  and 
hock;  pastern  short;  foot  short. 

Objections. — Long,  slim,  coarse,  crooked,  muscles  light; 
pastern  long,  slim  or  flat;  feet  long  or  sprawling. 

Coat. — Fine,  thick  and  covering  the  body  well. 

Objections. — Coarse,  bristly,  harsh  and  wiry. 

Action. — Easy,  prompt,  fine  and  graceful. 

Objections. — Dull,  sluggish,  clumsy. 

Symmetry. — A  harmonious  combination  of  the  foregoing 
scale  of  points. 

Objections. — Too  much  developed  in  some  points  and  lack- 
ing  in  others.  SERTOUs  OBJECTIONS 

Form. — Small  growth;  upright  ears;  small,  cramped  chest; 
crease  back  of  shoulders,  so  as  to  be  readily  seen;  deformed 
and  badly  crooked  legs;  feet  broken  down  so  that  the  animal 
walks  on  pastern  joints  and  dew-claws. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Condition. — Excessive  fat;  barren;  deformed;  unsound  or 
diseased;  ridging  or  one-sided. 

Score. — A  score  of  less  than  sixty  points  of  the  standard. 
Pedigree. — Lack  of  eligibility  to  record. 


OFFICIAL  STANDARDS  OF  EXCELLENCE  FOR  SWINE  167 

POLAND-CHINA  SWINE 

CENTBAL  ASSOCIATION    SCALE   OF   POINTS. 

Published   in  the  Central   Poland-China  Record,   In-  ~ 

dianapolis,  Ind.,  Vol.  XII,  1891,  and  Standard  Poland-  = 

China  Record,  Maryville,  Mo.,  Vol.  XIII,   1894.  o 

Head  and  Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears    2 

Neck     2 

Jowl 2 

Shoulders     6 

Chest    12 

Back  and  Loin 15 

Sides  and  Ribs 8 

Belly  and  Flank G 

Ham  and  Rump 10 

Feet  and  Legs 10 

Tail     1 

Coat    2 

Color    2 

Size     5 

Action  and  Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Upright  ears;  small,  cramped  chest,  crease  back  of 
shoulders  an'd  over  the  back  so  as  to  cause  a  depression  in 
back  easily  noticed;  deformed  or  badly  crooked  legs;  feet 
broken  down,  so  that  the  animal  walks  on  pastern  joints. 

Size. — China  build,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition. — Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  deformed;  seri- 
ously diseased;  total  blindness,  caused  by  defective  eyes,  or 
by  reason  of  fat  or  loose  and  wrinkled  skin  over  the  eyes. 

Score. — Less  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  full;  jaws 
broad;  forehead  high  and  wide;  face  short;  smooth;  wide  be- 
tween the  eyes;  tapering  from  eyes  to  point  of  nose  and  slight- 
ly dished;  surface  even  and  regular. 

Objections. — Head  long;  narrow;  coarse;  forehead  low  and 
narrow  or  contracted;  lower  jaw  extending  beyond  upper;  face 
long,  straight  and  narrow  between  the  eyes;  nose  coarse,  thick 
or  crooked,  ridgy  or  dished  as  much  as  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large,  prominent;  bright;  lively,  clear  and  free  from 
wrinkled  or  fat  surroundings. 

Objections. — Small,  dull,  blood-shot,  deep  set  or  obscure, 
vision  impaired  by  wrinkles,  fat  or  other  cause. 

Ears. — Small;  thin;  soft;  silky;  attached  to  the  head  by  a 
short  and  small  knuckle;  tips  pointing  forward  and  slightly 


168  JUDGING   SWINE 

outward,  and  the  forward  half  drooping  gracefully;  fully  under 
control  of  animal;  both  of  same  size,  position  and  shape. 

Objections. — Large;  straight;  stiff;  coarse;  thick;  round; 
long  or  large  knuckle,  drooping  close  to  face,  swinging  and 
flabby;  difference  in  form,  size  or  position. 

Neck. — Wide;  deep;  short,  and  nicely  arched  at  top,  from 
poll  of  head  to  shoulder. 

Objections. — Long;  narrow;  thin;  flat  on  top;  not  extending 
down  to  broast  bone;  tucked  up. 

Jowl. — Full;  broad;  deep;  smooth  and  firm;  carrying  full- 
ness back  near  to  point  of  shoulders,  and  below  line  of  lower 
jaw,  so  that  lower  line  will  be  as  low  as  breast  bone  when 
head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light;  flabby;  thin;  wedge  shaped;  deeply 
wrinkled;  not  drooping  below  line  of  lower  jaw,  and  not  carry- 
ing fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulders. — Broad;  deep  and  full;  not  extending  above  line 
of  back,  and  being  as  wide  on  top  as  back;  carrying  size  down 
to  line  of  belly  and  having  good  lateral  width. 

Objections. — Narrow;  not  same  depth  as  body;  narrow  on 
top  or  bottom  or  extending  above  line  of  back;  less  than  body 
in  breadth  at  top  or  bottom  portions,  or  lacking  in  lateral 
width;  shields  on  boars  under  eight  months  of  age,  or  large, 
heavy  shields  on  hogs  under  eighteen  months  of  age. 

Chest. — Large;  wide;  deep;  roomy,  indicating  plenty  of 
room  for  vital  organs,  and  making  a  large  girth  just  back  of 
shoulders;  the  breast  bone  extending  forward  so  as  to  show 
slightly  in  front  of  legs  and  extending  in  a  straight  line  back 
to  end  of  breast  bone;  showing  width  of  not  less  than  six  inches 
between  fore  legs  in  a  large,  full  grown  hog. 

Objections. — Flat;  pinched;  narrow  at  top  or  at  either  end 
of  breast  bone;  breast  bone  crooked  or  not  extending  slightly 
in  front  of  fore  legs. 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad;  straight;  or  slightly  arched;  car- 
rying same  width  from  shoulder  to  ham;  surface  even;  smooth, 
free  from  lumps,  creases  or  projections;  not  too  long,  but  broad 
on  top,  indicating  well  sprung  ribs;  should  not  be  higher  at 
hip  than  at  shoulder  and  should  fill  out  at  junction,  with  side 
so  that  a  straight  edge  placed  along  top  of  side  will  touch  all 
the  way  from  point  of  shoulder  to  point  of  ham;  should  be 
shorter  than  the  lower  belly  line. 

Objections. — Narrow;  creased  back  of  shoulders;  swayed  or 
hollow;  dropping  below  a  straight  line;  humped  or  wrinkled; 
too  long,  or  sunfish  shaped;  loin  high,  narrow,  depressed  or 
humped  up;  surface  lumpy,  creased,  ridgy  or  uneven;  width  at 
side  not  as  much  as  shoulder  and  ham. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full;  smooth;  firm  and  deep;  carry- 
ing size  down  to  belly  and  evenly  from  ham  to  shoulder;  ribs 
long,  strong,  well  sprung  at  top  and  bottom. 

Objections. — Flat;  thin;  flabby;  pinched;  not  as  full  at 
bottom  as  top;  drawn  in  at  shoulders  so  as  to  produce  a  crease 
or  pinched  and  tucked  up,  and  in  as  it  approaches  the  ham; 
lumpy  or  uneven  surface.;  ribs  flat  or  too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Wide,  straight  and  full  and  drooping  as 
low  at  flank  as  bottom  of  chest;  back  of  fore  leg  making  a 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  169 

straight  line  from  fore  legs  to  hind  legs;  flank  full  and  out 
even  with  surrounding  portions  of  body;  the  belly  at  that 
point  drooping  down  on  a  line  with  lower  line  of  chest;  the 
loose  skin  connecting  ham  and  belly  being  on  a  line  even  with 
bottom  of  side. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow;  pinched;  sagging  or  flabby. 
Flank  tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Hams  broad;  full,  long  and  wide.  They 
should  be  as  wide  at  point  of  the  hip  as  the  swell  of  the  'ham. 
Buttocks  large  and  full;  should  project  beyond  and  come  down 
upon  and  full  between  the  hocks.  The  lower  front  part  of  the 
ham  should  be  full  and  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh  and  a 
gradual  rounding  toward  the  hock.  Rump  should  have  a  round- 
ing slope  from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  same  width  as  back  and 
filling  out  full  on  each  side  of,  and  above  the  tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow;  short;  thin;  not  projecting  be- 
yond and  coming  down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch  or 
twist;  lacking  in  fullness  at  top  or  bottom;  lacking  in  width 
from  stifle  straight  back;  lower  fore  part  thin  and  flat;  straight 
from  root  of  tail  to  hock;  buttocks  light,  thin  or  flabby.  Rump 
flat,  narrow  and  peaked  at  root  of  tail;  too  steep. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  medium  length;  straight;  set  well 
apart  and  squarely  under  body;  tapering;  well  muscled  and 
wide  above  knee  and  hock;  below  'hock  and  knee  round  and 
tapering,  capable  of  sustaining  weight  of  animal  in  full  flesh 
without  breaking  down;  bone  firm  and  of  fine  texture;  pasterns 
short  and  nearly  upright.  Feet  firm;  short,  tough  and  free 
from  defects. 

Objections. — Legs  long;  slim;  coarse;  crooked;  muscles 
small  above  hock  and  knee;  bone  large;  coarse,  as  large  at 
foot  as  above  knee.;  pasterns  long,  slim,  crooked  or  weak; 
the  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line;  legs  too  close  to- 
gether; hoofs  long,  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked 
or  unable  to  bear  up  weight  of  animal  without  breaking  down. 

Tail. — Well  set  on; small,  smooth,  tapering  and  carried  in  a 
curl. 

Objections. — Coarse;  long;  crooked  or  hanging  straight 
down  like  a  rope. 

Coat. — Fine;  straight;  smooth;  laying  close  to  and  cover- 
ing the  body  well;  not  clipped;  evenly  distributed  over  body. 

Objections. — Bristles;  hair  coarse;  harsh;  thin;  wavy  or 
curly;  swirls;  standing  up;  ends  of  hair  split  and  brown;  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  of  the  body  except  belly.  Clipped 
coats  should  be  cut  1.5  points. 

Color. — Black  with  white  in  face  or  on  lower  jaw;  whiKe 
on  feet  and  tip  of  tail,  and  a  few  small,  clear  white  spots  on 
body  not  objectionable. 

Objections. — Solid  black,  more  than  one-fourth  white; 
sandy  hairs  or  spots;  a  grizzled  or  speckled  appearance. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition;  boars  two  years  old  and 
over,  if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds. 
Sows  same  age  and  condition  not  less  than  450  pounds.  Boars 
eighteen  months  old,  in  good  condition,  not  less  than  400 
pounds;  sows,  350  pounds.  Boars  twelve  months,  not  less 


170  JUDGING   SWINE 

than  300  pounds;  sows,  300  pounds.  Boar  and  sow  six  months, 
not  less  than  150  pounds.  Other  ages  in  proportion. 

Objections. — Overgrown;  coarse;  gangling,  or  hard  to  fatten 
at  any  age. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous;  easy;  quick  and  grace- 
ful. Style  attractive;  high  carriage;  and  in  males  testicles 
should  be  of  same  size;  carriage,  readily  seen  and  yet  not  too 
large. 

Objections. — Slow;  dull;  clumsy;  awkward;  difficulty  in  get- 
ting up  when  down;  low  carriage;  wabbling  walk.  In  males 
testicles  not  easily  seen,  not  of  same  size  or  carriage,  top  large 
or  only  one  showing. 

Condition.- — Healthy;  skin  clear  of  scurf,  scales,  or  sores; 
goft  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  flesh  fine,  evenly  laid  on  and 
free  from  lumps  or  wrinkles,  Hair  soft  and  lying  close  to, 
feQdy;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — -Unhealthy;  skin  scaly,  wrinkly,  scabby  or 
harsh,  flabbiness  or  lumpy  flesh;  too  much  fat  for  breeding. 
Hair  harsh,  dry  and  standing  up  from  body;  poor  feeder; 
deafness,  partial  or  total, 

Disposition. — Quiet,  gentle  and  easily  handled. 

Objections, — Cross,  restless,  vicious  or  wild. 


ESSEX  SWINE. 

SCALE    OF    POINTS    ADOPTED    BY    AMERICAN    ESSEX    ASSOCIA-  | 

TION,  VOL.  II,  IMPROVED  ESSEX  SWINE  RECORD,  1893.  £ 

Color — Black 2 

Head — Small,  broad  and  face  dished 3 

Ears — Fine,   erect,   slightly   drooping  with   age 2 

Jowl — Full  and  neat 1 

Neck — Short,  full,  well  arched 3 

Shoulders — Broad  and  deep 7 

Girth  Around  Heart 6 

Back — Straight,  broad  and  level 12 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well  sprung 7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong 12 

Flank — Well  let  down 2 

Ham — Broad,  full  and  deep 12 

Tail — Medium,  fine,  and  curled 2 

Legs — Fine,  straight  and  tapering 3 

Feet — Small     3 

Hair — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles 3 

Action — Easy  and  graceful   4 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other .  .  10 

Total,,  .100 


Pen  of  two  Berkshire  pigs.  Exhibited  by  Mr.  J.  A.  Firckert,  of 
Burton  Mere,  Wiltshire.  Winners  of  the  challenge  cup  for  the  best 
pen  of  two  pigs,  at  the  Smithfield  Show,  England,  1898. 


Pure  bred  Tamworth  sow,  AGINCOURT  QUEEN.  The  property  of 
Mr.  John  Bell,  Amber,  Ontario,  Canada.  Agincourt  Queen  was  far- 
rowed Feb.  9,  1896.  Photo  was  taken  May  26,  1897. 


Thin   Rind   Sow,   BKAKTY   1'T,   MNVMCM!    l»y   .Ii.lm    S.    IMu-lps,   Lexington, 
Kentucky. 


Berkshire  sow,  HIGHCLERE  COUNTESS  IX,  of  Hood  Farm,  and  her 
litter  of  nine  pigs  at  three  weeks  old,  by  Wantage  King  of  Hood 
Farm.  First  prize  winner  at  numerous  fairs  in  1898.  Two  of  the 
pigs  are  under  the  others,  the  white  brush  of  one  showing  between  the 
second  and  third  from  the  left  end,  and  the  other  in  the  same  position 
from  the  other  end.  Owned  by  Hood  Farm,  Lowell,  Massachusetts. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   TOR   SWINE  171 

CHESTER  \7HITE  SWINE 

SCALE   OF   POINTS    AS    ADOPTED    BY    THE    STANDARD    CHESTER  m 

^..  WHITE  RECORD   ASSOCIATION.      CHESTER  WHITE 

RECORD,   VOL.   Ill,   1892.  £ 

The   description    which   follows   is  similar  to  that 
adopted  by  the  National  Association  of  Expert  Judges. 

Head  and  Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears    2 

Neck 2 

Jowl    2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest    ]  .  9 

Back  and  Loin 15 

Sides   and   Rib    8 

Belly  and  Flank 6 

Ham  and  Rump    10 

Feet  and  Legs 10 

Tail     1 

Coat    2 

Color    5 

Size     5 

Action  and  Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition 3 

Total 100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Upright  ears;  small  cramped  chest;  crease  around 
back  of  shoulders  and  over  the  back,  causing  a  depression 
easily  noticed;  feet  broken  down,  causing  the  animal  to  walk 
on  pastern  joints;  deformed  or  badly  crooked  legs. 

Size. — Chuffy,  or  not  two  thirds  large  enough  for  age. 

Condition. — Squabbv.  fat;  deformed,  seriously  diseased; 
barrenness;  total  blindness. 

Score. — Less  than  sixty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

Color — Black  or  sandy  spots  in  hair. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  short  and  wide;  cheeks  neat  but  not 
too  full;  jaws  broad  and  strong;  forehead  medium,  high  and 
wide.  Face  short  and  smooth;  wide  between  the  eyes;  nose 
neat  and  tapering  and  slightly  dished. 

Objections. — Head  long,  narrow  and  coarse;  forehead  low 
and  narrow;  jaws  contracted  and  weak.  Face  long,  narrow  and 
straight;  nose  coarse,  clumsy  or  dished  like  a  Berkshire. 

Eyes. — Large,  bright,  clear  and  free  from  wrinkles  or  fat 
surroundings. 

Objections. — Small,  deep  or  obscure;  vision  impaired  in  any 
way. 

Ears. — Medium  size;  not  too  thick;  soft;  attached  to  the 
head  so  as  not  to  look  clumsy;  pointing  forward  and  slightly 


172  JUDGING   SWINE 

outward;  fully  under  control  of  the  animal  and  drooping 
so  as  to  give  a  graceful  appearance. 

Objections. — Large;  upright;  coarse;  thick;  round;  too 
small;  drooping  too  close  to  the  face;  animal  not  being  able  to 
control  them. 

Neck. — Wide;  deep;  short  and  nicely  arched. 

Objections. — Long,  narrow;  thin;  flat  on  top;  tucked  up;  not 
extending  down  to  breast  bone. 

Jowl.- — Full;  smooth,  neat  and  firm;  carrying  fullness  back 
to  shoulder  and  brisket  when  the  head  is  carried  up  level. 

Objections. — Light;  too  large  and  flabby;  rough  and  deeply 
wrinkled;  not  carrying  fullness  back  to  shoulder  and  brisket. 

Shoulder. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  extending  in  a  straight  line 
with  the  side,  and  carrying  size  down  to  line  of  belly. 

Objections. — Narrow  at  top  or  bottom,  not  full  nor  same 
depth  as  body;  extending  above  line  of  back;  shields  on  boars 
too  coarse  and  prominent. 

Chest. — Large;  deep  and  roomy  so  as  not  to  cramp  vital  or- 
gans; full  in  girth  around  the  heart;  the  breast  bone  extend- 
ing forward  so  as  to  show  slightly  in  front  of  legs,  and  let 
down  so  as  to  be  even  with  line  of  belly,  showing  a  width 
of  not  less  than  7  inches  between  fore  legs  of  a  full  grown  hog. 

Objections. — Narrow;  pinched;  heart  girth  less  than  flank 
girth;  too  far  let  down  between  fore  legs;  breast  bone  crooked 
or  too  short. 

Back  and  Loin. — Back  broad  on  top;  straight  or  slightly 
arched;  uniform  width;  smooth;  free  from  lumps  or  rolls; 
shorter  than  lower  belly  line;  same  height  and  width  at  shoul- 
ders as  at  ham;  loin  wide  and  full. 

Objections. — Back  narrow;  creased  back  of  shoulders;  sun- 
fished  shape;  humped;  swayed;  too  long  or  lumpy  rolls;  un- 
even in  width;  loin  narrow,  depressed  or  humped. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  full;  smooth;  deep;  carrying  size 
down  to  belly;  even  with  line  of  ham  and  shoulder;  ribs  long; 
well  sprung  at  top  or  bottom,  giving  hog  a  square  form. 

Objections. — Flat;  thin;  flabby;  compressed  at  bottom; 
shrunken  at  shoulder  and  ham;  uneven  surface;  ribs  flat  and 
too  short. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Same  width  as  back;  full,  making  a 
straight  line  and  dropping  as  low  at  flank  as  at  bottom  of 
chest;  line  of  lower  edge  running  parallel  with  sides;  flank 
full  and  even  with  body. 

Objections. — Belly  narrow;  pinched;  sagging  or  flabby;  flank 
thin,  tucked  up  or  drawn  in. 

Ham  and  Rump. — Ham  "broad;  full;  long,  wide  and  deep; 
admitting  of  no  swells;  buttock  full;  neat  and  clean,  thus 
avoiding  flabbiness;  stifle  well  covered  with  flesh,  nicely  taper- 
ing towards  the  hock;  rump  should  have  slightly  rounding 
shape  from  loin  to  root  of  tail;  same  width  as  back,  making 
an  even  line  with  sides. 

Objections. — Hams  narrow;  short;  not  filled  out  to  stifle;  too 
much  cut  up  in  crotch  or  twist;  not  coming  down  to  hock;  but- 
tocks flabby;  rump  flat,  narrow,  too  long,  too  steep,  sharp  or 
peaked  at  root  of  tail. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE  FOR   SWINE  173 

Leg's  and  Feet. — Legs  short;  straight;  set  well  apart  and 
squarely  under  body;  bone  of  good  size;  firm;  well  muscled; 
wide  above  knee  and  hock;  below  knee  and  hock  round  and 
tapering,  enabling  the  animal  to  carry  its  weight  with  ease; 
pastern  short  and  nearly  upright;  feet  short,  firm,  tough  and 
free  from  defects. 

Objections. — Legs  too  short,  long,  slim,  crooked,  too  coarse: 
too  close  together;  weak  muscles  above  hock  and  knee;  bone 
large  and  coarse  without  taper;  pasterns  long;  crooked,  slim 
like  a  deer's;  hoofs  long,  slim,  weak;  toes  spreading,  crooked 
or  turned  up. 

Tail. — Small;  smooth;  tapering,  well  set  on,  root  slightly 
covered  with  flesh;  carried  in  a  curl. 

Objections. — Coarse;  long,  clumsy;  set  too  high  or  too  low; 
hanging  like  a  rope. 

Ccat. — Fine;  straight  or  wavy;  evenly  distributed  and  cov- 
ering the  body  well;  nicely  clipped  coats  no  objection. 

Objections. — Bristles;  hair  coarse;  thin;  standing  up;  not 
evenly  distributed  over  all  the  body  except  belly. 

Color. — White  (blue  spots  or  black  specks  in  skin  shall  not 
argue  impurity  of  blood). 

Objections. — Color  any  other  than  white. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition;  boars  two  years  old 
and  over,  if  in  good  flesh,  should  weigh  not  less  than  500 
pounds.  Sow  same  age  and.  conditions,  not  less  than  450 
pounds.  Boars  18  months  old  in  goo-i  flesh  should  weigh  n^t 
less  than  400  pounds.  Sows  350.  Boars  12  months  old  not 
less  than  300  pounds.  Sows  300.  Boars  and  sows  6  months 
old,  not  less  than  150  pounds  each,  and  other  ages  in  pro- 
portion. 

Objections. — Overgrown;    coarse;    uncouth;    hard  to   fatten. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  easy  and  graceful;  style  attrac- 
tive; high  carriage;  in  males  testicles  should  be  readily  seen; 
same  size  and  carriage. 

Objections. — Sluggish;  awkward  low  carriage;  wabbling 
walk;  in  males  testicles  not  easily  seen;  not  of  same  size  or 
carriage,  or  only  one  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy  skin,  clear  and  bright:  free  from  scurf 
and  sores;  flesh  fine  and  mellow  to  the  touch;  evenly  laid  on 
and  free  from  lumps;  good  feeding  qualities. 

Objections. — Unhealthy;  skin  scaly,  scabby  or  harsh;  flesh 
lumpy  or  flabby;  hair  harsh,  dry  and  standing  up  from  body; 
poor  feeders;  total  deafness. 

Disposition. — Quiet;  gentle  and  easily  handled:  with  ambi- 
tion enough  to  look  out  for  themselves  if  neglected. 

Objections. — Cross;   restless;   vicious  or  wild;   no  ambition. 


174  JUDGING  SWINE 

CHESTER  WHITE  SWINE, 

SCALE  OF   POINTS    AS   ADOPTED   BY   THE   CHESTER   WHITE 

RECORD  ASSOCIATION  AT  THEIR  ANNUAL  MEETING,  m 

JAN.,  1885,  AND  REVISED  JAN.,  1888.      PUBLISHED 

TODD'S   IMPROVED    CHESTER   WHITE    SWINE  £ 

RECORD,   VOL.   IV,    1891. 

Head — Small,  broad,  slightly  dished 5 

Eye — Large  and  bright 2 

Ear — Thin,   fine  and   drooping    2 

Jowl — Neat  and  full 3 

Neck — Short,  full  and  slightly  arched 3 

Brisket — Full  and  deep 3 

Shoulder — Broad  and  deep    6 

Girth  Around  Heart 10 

Back — Straight  and  broad 7 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well  sprung 7 

Belly — Wide  and  straight    4 

Girth  Around  Flank 10 

Ham — Broad,  full  and  deep 10 

Iambs — Strong,    straight    and    neat 7 

Tail — Tapering,  and  not  coarse 2 

Coat — Fine  and  thick 8 

Color — White    . 1 

Action — Prompt,  easy  and  graceful 5 

Symmetry 4 

Total 100 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head — Short  broad  between  the  eyes,  and  nicely  tapering 
frcm  eyes  to  point  of  nose;  face  slightly  dished;  cheeks  full. 

Objections — Head  coarse,  long  and  narrow;  face  straight  cr 
too  much  dtshed;  snout  coarse  or  thick. 

Eye. — Large,  bright,  and  free  from  overgrowing  fat. 

Objections. — Small,  dim,  or  hidden  under  protruding  fat. 

Ear. — Drooping;  thin;  pointing  outward  and  forward;  well 
proportioned  to  size  of  body. 

Objections. — Too  large  and  coarse;  thick,  lopping;  lying  too 
near  the  face;  stiff,  erect,  or  too  small. 

jowl. — Full,  firm  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  well  back  to 
neck  and  brisket. 

Objections. — Flabby;  light;  thin  in  cheek;  tucking  up  unler 
the  neck. 

Neck. — Full,  deep,  short,  and  well  arcned. 

Objections. — Long;  flat;  lacking  in  fullness  or  depth. 

Brisket. — Full;  strong;  well  let  down;  extending  well  for- 
ward, and  on  line  of  the  belly. 

Objections. — Narrow,  or  tucked  up. 

Shoulder. — Broad;  deep;  thickness  in  proportion  to  the  side 
and  ham;  full  and  even  on  top. 

Objections. — Thick  beyond  the  line  of  side  and  ham;  lacking 
in  depth  or  width;  blade  prominent,  or  extending  above  the 
line  of  the  back. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE  FOB   SWINE  175 

Girth  Around  the  Heart. — Full  back  of  shoulders;  ribs  ex- 
tending well  down;  wide  and  full  back  of  fore  legs. 

Objections. — Less  than  flank  or  length  of  body  from  top  of 
the  head  to  root  of  the  tail. 

Back. — Broad,  straight,  or  slightly  arched,  carrying  width 
well  ba"ck  to  the  hams,  and  of  medium  length. 

Objections. — Narrow;  sinking  back  of  shoulders;  narrow 
across  the  loin;  swayed;  too  long;  sunfish  shaped. 

Sides. — Full;  deep;  carrying  weight  and  thickness  well  down 
and  back. 

Objections. — Too  round  or  flat;  shallow  or  thin  at  the  flank. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung,  carrying  fullness  well  back  and  deep. 

Objections. — Too  flat;  curve  of  rib  too  short;  tucking  in  at 
bottom;  sagging  about  loin. 

Loin. — Broad,  strong  and  full. 

Objections. — Narrow;  poorly  ribbed  up;  weak. 

Belly. — Wide  and  straight;  width  approximating  that  of  the 
back. 

Objections. — Sagging;  narrow;  skin  coarse,  harsh  and  thick. 

Girth  Around  Flank. — Flank  well  let  down  and  full;  loin 
broad,  strong  and  full;  measurement  of  flank  girth  equal  to 
heart  girth. 

Objections. — Flank  thin,  tucked  in,  or  cut  up.too  high;  loin 
narrow  or  weak. 

Ham. — Broad,  full,  deep;  of  medium  length;  coming  down 
well  over  the  hock. 

Objections. — Narrow;  short;  running  too  far  up  the  back; 
steep  at  the  rump. 

Limbs. — Medium  length;  short  rather  than  long;  set  well 
apart,  and  well  under;  muscles  full  above  knee  and  hock; 
bone  firm  and  not  coarse;  pasterns  short  and  strong;  foot 
short. 

Objections. — Long,  slim,  coarse,  crookel;  muscles  light; 
pasterns  long,  slim  or  flat;  hoofs  long  or  sprawling. 

Tail. — Small,  tapering,  smooth,  well  set  on. 

Objections. — Coarse;  large;  too  prominent  at  the  root. 

Coat. — Fine  and  thick. 

Objections. — Coarse;  hair  too  long;  wiry;  harsh. 

Color. — White.  (Blue  spots  in  skin  and  black  specks  shall 
not  argue  impurity  of  blood.) 

Action. — Easy;   prompt;   fine  and  graceful. 

Objections. — Dull,  sluggish,  clumsy. 

Symmetry. — Uniform  build,  and  all  points  in  animal  in  pro- 
portion. 

Objections. — Wanting  in  some  points,  and  too  much  de- 
veloped in  others.  DISOUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Small  growth;  upright  ears;  small,  cramped  chest; 
crease  back  of  the  shoulders,  so  as  to  be  readily  seen;  de- 
formed and  badly  crooked  legs;  feet  broken  down  so  that  ani- 
mal walks  on  pastern  joints  and  dew-claws. 

SERIOUS   OBJECTIONS. 

Condition. — Excessive  'fat;  barren;  deformed,  unsound  or 
diseased;  ridgling  or  one-seeded. 

Score. — A  score  of  les  than  sixty  of  the  standard. 
Pedigree. — Lack  of  eligibility  to  record. 


176  JUDGING   SWINE 


DUROC-JERSEY  SWINE, 

STANDARD  OF  CHARACTERISTICS  ADOPTED  BY  THE  AMERICAN  DUROC- 
JERSEY    SWINE  BREEDERS   ASSOCIATION.       AMERICAN 
DUROC-JERSEY    RECORD,    VOL.    IV,    1893. 

Color. — The  color  is  a  very  important  factor  in  establish- 
ing the  fancy  markings  of  any  of  the  improved  breeds  of  swine, 
and  it  seems  as  though  the  Doroc-Jersey  is  no  exception.  Our 
breeders  (at  least  many  of  them)  seem  to  not  have  the  right 
idea  as  to  what  our  "Standard  of  Characteristics"  means  by 
the  term  "Cherry  Red." 

There  are  many  shades  of  red  and  we  shall  here  endeavor 
to  make  some  suggestions  which  will  enable  breeders  to  give 
the  exact  color  of  their  hogs  sent  for  registration. 

The  best  way  is  to  take  a  few  hairs  from  the  back  of  the 
animal  and  hold  them  in  a  bright  light,  and  then  you  can  tell 
very  accurately  the  exact  color.  If  the  hair  is  a  clear,  deep 
red,  and  not  shading  brown  or  black  at  the  end,  you  have  a 
cherry  red  color  and  should  be  recorded  as  "Cherry  Red." 
Should  the  hair  be  as  above  and  shading  brown  or  black,  it 
should  be  recorded  as  "Dark  Cherry."  Should  the  hair  be 
lighter  and  glossy  in  the  sun  light,  they  should  be  -recorded  as 
"Bright  Red,"  or  "Bright  Cherry."  Should  the  hair  be  light 
and  have  a  dull  appearance,  they  should  be  recorded  as  "Medi- 
um." Should  the  hair  be  dark  or  shading  black,  they  should 
be  recorded  as  "Dark  Red." 

The  most  fashionable  color  and  the  one  our  breeders  should 
use  every  possible  means  to  establish  in  their  herd  is  a 
"Cherry  Red"  and  as  speedily  as  possible,  discard  aU  animals 
with  black  spots  or  flecks,  and  avoid  very  light  or  dark  shades 
in  their  selection  of  breeding  animals. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  177 

DUROC-JERSEY  SWINE. 

SCALE   OF    POINTS AMERICAN    DUROC-JERSEY    RECORD. 

--Similar  to  the  description  prepared  by  the  National  § 

Association  of  Expert  Judges.  u 

Head  and  Face 4 

Eyes 2 

Ears    2 

Neck 2 

Jowl    2 

Shoulders 6 

Chest    12 

Back  and  Loin 15 

Sides  and  Ribs 8 

Belly  and  Flank 6 

Hams  and  Rumps 10 

Legs  and  Feet 10 

Tail    1 

Coat    2 

Color    2 

Size     5 

Action  and  Style 4 

Condition 4 

Disposition     3 

Total 100 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Form. — Ears  standing  erect;  small  cramped  chest,  and 
crease  back  of  shoulders  and  over  back  so  as  to  cause  a  depres- 
sion in  the  back  easily  noticed;  seriously  deformed  legs,  or 
badly  broken  down  feet. 

Size. — Very  small,  or  not  two-thirds  large  enough  as  given 
by  the  standard. 

Score. — Less  than  fifty  points. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  to  record. 

DETAILED  DESCRIPTION. 

Head  and  Face. — Head  small  in  proportion  to  size  of  body; 
wide  between  eyes;  face  nicely  dished  (about  half  way  be- 
tween a  Poland-China  and  a  Berkshire)  and  tapering  well 
down  to  the  nose;  surface  smooth  and  even. 

Objections. — Large  and  coarse;  narrow  between  the  eyes; 
face  straight;  crooked  nose,  or  too  much  dished. 

Eyes. — Lively,  bright  and  prominent. 

Objections. — Dull,  weak  and  obscure. 

Ears. — Medium;  moderately  thin;  pointing  forward,  down- 
ward and  slightly  outward,  carrying  a  slight  curve,  attached  to 
head  very  neatly. 

Objections. — Very  large;  nearly  round;  too  thick;  swinging 
or  flabby;  not  of  same  size;  different  position  and  not  under 
control  of  animal. 

Xeck. — Short,  thick  and  very  deep  and  slightly  arching. 

Objections. — Long,  shallow  and  thin. 


178  JUDGING   SWIXE 

Jowl. — Broad,  full  and  neat;  carrying  fullness  back  to 
point  of  shoulders  and  on  a  line  with  breast  bone. 

Objections. — Too  large,  loose  and  flabby;  small  thin  and 
wedging. 

Shoulders. — Moderately  broad;  very  deep  and  full;  carrying 
thickness  well  down  and  not  extending  above  line  of  back. 

Objections. — Small;  thin;  shallow;  extending  above  line  of 
back.  Boars  under  one  year  old  heavily  shielded. 

Chest. — Large;  very  deep;  filled  full  behind  shoulders; 
breast  bone  extending  well  forward  so  as  to  be  readily  seen. 

Objections. — Flat;  shallow,  or  not  extending  well  down  be- 
tween fore  legs. 

Back  and  Loin. — Back  medium  in  breadth;  straight  or  slight- 
ly arching;  carrying  even  width  from  shoulder  to  ham;  sur- 
face even  and  smooth. 

Objections. — Narrow;  crease  behind  shoulders;  swayed  or 
hump  backed. 

Sides  and  Ribs. — Sides  very  deep;  medium  in  length;  level 
between  shoulders  and  hams  and  carrying  out  full  down  to 
line  of  belly.  Ribs  long,  strong  and  sprung  in  proportion  to 
width  of  shoulders  and  hams. 

Objections. — Flabby,  creased,  shallow  and  not  carrying 
proper  width  from  top  to  bottom. 

Belly  and  Flank. — Straight  and  full  and  carrying  well  out 
to  line  of  sides.  Flank  well  down  to  lower  line  of  sides. 

Objections. — Narrow;  tucked  up  or  drawn  in;  sagging  or 
flabby. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Broad,  full  and  well  let  down  to  the 
hock;  buttock  full  and  coming  nearly  down  and  filling  full  be- 
tween hocks.  Rump  should  have  a  round  slope,  from  loin  to 
root  of  tail;  same  width  as  back  and  well  filled  out  around 
tail. 

Objections. — Ham  narrow;  short;  thin;  not  projecting  well 
down  to  hock;  cut  up  too  high  in  crotch.  Rump  narrow;  flat 
or  peaked  at  root  of  tail;  too  steep. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Medium  size  and  length;  straight;  nicely 
tapered;  wide  apart  and  well  set  under  the  body;  pasterns 
short  and  strong.  Feet  short,  firm  and  tough. 

Objections. — Legs  extremely  long,  or  very  short;  slim; 
coarse;  crooked;  legs  as  large  below  knee  and  hock  as  above; 
set  too  close  together;  hocks  turned  in  or  out  of  straight  line. 
Feet,  hoofs  long;  slim  and  weak;  toes  spreading  or  crooked. 

Tail. — Medium;  large  at  base  and  nicely  tapering  and  rather 
bushy  at  end. 

Objections.— Extremely  heavy;  too  long  and  ropy. 
Coat. — Moderately    thick    and    fine;    straight,    smooth    and 
covering  the  body  well. 

Objections. — Too    many    bristles;    hair    coarse,    harsh    and 
rough;  wavy  or  curly;  swirls,  or  not  evenly  laid  over  the  body. 
Color. — Cherry  red  without  other  admixtures. 
Objections. — Very  dark  red  or  shading  brown;  very  pale  or 
light  red;  black  spots  over  the  body;  black  flecks  on  belly  and 
legs  not  desired  but  admissible. 

Size. — Large  for  age  and  condition.  Boars  two  years  old  and 
over  should  weigh  600  pounds;  sow  same  age  and  condition, 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS   OF  EXCELLENCE  FOB   SWINE  179 

500  pounds.  Boar  eighteen  months,  475  pounds;  sow,  400 
pounds.  Boar  twelve  months,  350  pounds;  sow,  300  pounds. 
Boar  and  sew  pigs  six  months,  150  pounds.  The  figures  are 
for  animals  in  a  fair  show  condition. 

Objections. — Rough  ana  coarse  and  lacking  in  feeding 
qualities. 

Action  and  Style. — Action  vigorous  and  animated.  Style 
free  and  easy. 

Objections. — Dull  or  stupid;  awkward  and  wabbling.  In 
bears  testicles  net  eas:iy  saen  nor  of  same  size  or  carriage; 
too  large  or  only  ere  showing. 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  free  from  scurf,  scales,  sores, 
and  mange;  flesh  evenly  laid  over  the  entire  body  and  free 
frcm  any  lumps. 

Objections. — Unhealthy;  scurfy;  scaly;  sores;  mange;  too 
fat  for  breeding  purposes;  hair  harsh  and  standing  up;  pcor 
feeders. 

Disposition. — Very  quiet  and  gentle;  easily  handled  or 
driven. 

Objections. — Wild,  vicious  or  stubborn. 

VICTORIA  SWINE, 

SCALE   OF   POINTS   ADOPTED   BY   VICTORIA    SWINE   BREEDERS 

ASSOCIATION.      AMERICAN   VICTORIA   SWINE   RECORD.  „, 

VOL.    I,    1887. 

The  description  that  fellows  is  similar  to  that  adopted  £ 
by  the  National  Association  of  Expert  Judges. 

Color — White,  with  occasional  dark  spots  in  the  skin 2 

Head — Small,  broad  and  face  medium  dished 3 

Ears — Fine,  pointing  forward 2 

Jowl — Medium  size  and  neat 1 

Xeck — Short,  full  and  well  arched 3 

Shoulders — Broad  and  deep    7 

Girth  Around  Heart 6 

Back — Straight,  bread  and  level 12 

Sides — Deep  and  full 6 

Ribs — Well  sprung 7 

Loin — Broad  and  strong 12 

Flank — Well  let  down 2 

Ham — Broad,  full  and  deep,  without  loose  fat 12 

Tail — Medium  fine  and  curled 2 

Legs — Fine  and  straight 3 

Feet — Small     3 

Hair — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles  .  . 3 

Action — Easy  and  graceful    4 

Symmetry — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other.  10 

Total 100 

Detailed  description  cf  Victoria  swine  as  adopted  by  the  Vic- 
toria Swine  Breeders'  Association  at  their  annual  meeting,  No- 
vember, 1888,  as  an  aid  to  judges  at  fairs  in  place  of  the  score 
card. 

Color. — White,  with  occasional  dark  spot  in  the  skin. 


180  JUDGING   SWINE 

Head  and  Face. — Head  rather  small  and  neat.  Pace  medium 
dished  and  smooth;  wide  between  eyes;  tapering  from  eyes  to 
nose. 

Eyes — Medium  size,  prominent,  bright;  clear  and  lively  in 
young,  and  quiet  expression  in  aged  animals. 

Neck. — Medium  wide,  deep,  short,  well  arched  and  full  at 
top. 

Jowl. — Medium  full,  nicely  rounded,  neat  and  free  from 
loose,  flabby  fat. 

Shoulders. — Broad,  deep  and  full,  not  higher  than  the  line 
of  back,  and  as  wide  on  top  as  back. 

Chest. — Large,  wide,  deep  and  roomy,  with  large  girth  back 
of  shoulders. 

Back  and  Loin. — Broad,  straight  or  slightly  arched,  carrying 
same  width  from  shoulders  to  ham;  level  and  full  at  loin; 
sometimes  higher  at  hip  than  at  shoulder. 

Ribs  and  Sides. — Ribs  well  sprung  at  top;  strong  and  firm; 
sides  deep,  full,  smooth  and  firm;  free  from  creases. 

Belly  and  Plank. —  Wide;  straight  and  full;  as  low  or 
slightly  lower  at  flank  than  at  chest.  Plank  full  and  nearly 
even  with  sides. 

Hams  and  Rump. — Hams  long;  full  and  wide;  nicely  round- 
ed; trim  and  free  from  loose  fat.  Buttocks  large  and  full; 
reaching  well  down  toward  hocks.  Rump,  slightly  sloped 
from  end  of  loin  to  root  of  tail. 

Legs  and  Feet. — Legs  short;  set  well  apart  and  firm;  wide 
above  knee  and  hock  tapering  below.  Feet  firm  and  standing 
well  up  on  toes. 

Tail. — Small;  fine  and  tapering;  nicely  curled. 

Coat. — Fine  and  silky;  evenly  covering  the  body. 

Size. — Boars  two  years  old  and  over  when  in  good  condi- 
tion should  weigh  not  less  than  500  pounds;  sow  same 
age  and  condition,  450  pounds.  Boars  twelve  months  old 
not  less  than  300  pounds;  sows  in  good  flesh,  300  pounds. 
Pigs  5  to  6  months  old,  140  to  160  pounds. 

Action. — Easy  and  graceful,  but  quiet. 

Condition. — Healthy;  skin  clean,  and  white  or  pink  in  color; 
free  from  scurf;  flesh  firm  and  evenly  laid  on. 

Disposition. — Quiet  and  gentle. 

DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Color. — Other  than  white  or  creamy  white,  with  occasional 
dark  spots  in  skin. 

Form. — Crooked  jaws  or  deformed  face;  crooked  or  de- 
formed legs;  large,  coarse,  drooping  ears. 

Condition. — Excessive  fatness;  barrenness;  deformity  iti 
any  part  of  body. 

Pedigree. — Not  eligible  for  record. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS    OF  EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  181 

CHESHIRE  SWINE 

STANDAKD  OF  EXCELLENCE.      THE  CHESHIRE  HERD  BOOK. 
VOL.    I,   1889. 

Head. — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  tc 
length  of  body;  face  somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  th€ 
eyes;  ears  small,  erect,  in  old  animals  often  slightly  pointing 
forward;  neck,  short;  shoulders  broad  and  full;  hips  broad 
body  long,  broad  and  deep;  hams,  broad,  nearly  straight  witb 
back  and  running  well  down  towards  hock;  legs  small  and 
slim,  set  well  apart  and  supporting  the  body  on  the  toes: 
tail,  small  and  slim;  hair  fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quan 
tity;  color,  white,  a  few  blue  spots  in  skin  not  to  disqualify 
but  objectionable;  when  grown  and  well  fattened  should  dress 
from  400  to  600  pounds. 

SCALE  OF  POIXTS. 

Cheshires  must  be  Shown  in  fair  breeding  condition.  «, 
Animals  too  fleshy  to  meet  this  requirement  must  be  f 
docked  ten  points.  £ 

Head. — Short  to  medium  in  length,  short  in  proportion  to 

length  of  body    8 

Face. — Somewhat  dished  and  wide  between  the  eyes 8 

Jowl. — Medium  in  fullness 3 

Ears. — Small,  fine,  erect;  in  old  animals  often  pointing  for- 
ward        5 

Neck. — Short  and  broad 3 

Shoulders. — Broad,  full  and  deep 6 

Girth. — Size  of  body  around  heart 8 

Back. — Long,  broad  and  straight  nearly  to  root  of  tail.  ...    10 

Side. — Deep  and  full,  nearly  straight  on  bcttom  line 7 

Flank. — Well  back  and  low  down,  making  flank  girth  nearly 

equal  to  heart  girth Z 

Hams. — Broad,  nearly  straight  with  back  and  running  well 

down  towards  hock 10 

Legs. — Small  and  slim,  set  well  apart  and  supporting  boly 

on  toes 1C 

Tail. — Small,  slim  and  tapering 

Hair. — Fine,  medium  in  thickness  and  quality 

Color. — White,  any  other  colored  hair  to  disqualify 2 

Skin. — Thin   and   pliable;    small   blue   spots   objectionable, 

but  allowable 

Symmetry. — Animal  well  proportioned,  handsome,  stylish  .  .      8 

Total.,  100 


182  JUDGING  SWINE 

YORKSHIRE  SWINE:   LARGE  WHITE, 

STANDARD    OF    EXCELLENCE    PUBLISHED    IN    THE     NATIONAL 
PIG    BREEDERS    ASSOCIATION    HERD    BOOK,    NOTTING- 
HAM,   ENG.,    VOL.    XII,    1896. 

Color. — White,  free  from  black  hairs,  and  as  far  as  possible 
from  blue-  spots  on  the  skin. 

Head. — Moderately  long,  face  slightly  dished,  snout  broad, 
not  tco  much  turned  up,  jowl  not  too  heavy,  wide  between 
ears. 

Ears. — Long,  thin,  slightly  inclined  forward,  and  fringed 
with  fine  hair. 

Neck. — Long,  and  proportionately  iull  to  the  shoulders. 

Che?t. — Wide    and    deep. 

Shoulders. — Level  across  the  top,  not  too  wide,  free  from 
coarseness. 

Leg's. — Straight  and  well  set,  level  with  the  outside  of  the 
body,  with  flat  bone. 

Pasterns. — Short  and  springy. 

Feet. — Strong,  even  and  wide. 

Back. — Long,  level  and  wide  from  neck  to  rump. 

Loin. — Broad. 

Tail. — Set  high,  stout  and  long,  but  not  coarse,  with  tassels 
of  fine  hair. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung. 

Belly. — Full,  but  not  flabby,  with  straight  underline. 

Flank. — 'Thick  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters. — Long    and    wide. 

Hams. — Broad,  full  and  deep  to  hocks. 

Coat. — Long  and  moderately  fine. 

Action. — Firm  and  free. 

Skin. — Not  too  thick,  quite  free  from  wrinkles.  Large  bred 
pigs  do  not  fully  develop  their  points  until  some  months  old, 
the  pig  at  five  months  often  proving  at  a  year  or  fifteen 
months  a  much  better  animal  than  could  be  anticipated  at 
the  earlier  age  and  vice  versa;  but  size  and  quality  are  most 
important. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  black  spots,  a  curly  coat,  a  coarse 
mane,  short  snout,  in-bent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoul- 
ders. 

MIDDLE  WHITE  SWINE. 

STANDARD    OF   EXCELLENCE    ADOPTED   BY    THE    NATIONAL   PTO 
BREEDERS    ASSOCIATION    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

Color. — Wliite,  free  from  black  hairs  and  blue  spots  on  the 
skin. 

Head. — Moderately  short,  face  dished,  snout  broad  and 
turned  up,  jowl  full,  wide  between  the  ears. 

Ears. — Fairly  large,  carried  erect  and  fringed  with  fine 
hair. 

Nock. — Medium  length,  proportionately  full  to  the  shoul- 
ders. 

Chest. — Wide  and  deep. 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS    OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  1S3 

Shoulders. — Level  across  the  top,  moderately  wide,  free 
from  coarseness. 

L*g. — Straight  and  well  set,  level  with  outside  of  the  body 
with  tine  bone. 

"Pasterns. — Short  and  springy. 

Feet. — Strong,  even  and  wide. 

Back. — Long,  level  and  wide  from  rump. 

Loin. — Broad. 

Tail. — Set  high,  moderate  length,  but  not  coarse,  with  tassel 
of  fine  hair. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung. 

Belly. — Full,  but  not  flabby  and  straight  underline. 

Flank. — Thick  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters. — Long  and  wide. 

Hams. — Broad,  full  and  deep  to  hocks. 

Coat. — Long,  fine  and  silky. 

Action. — Firm  and  free. 

Skin. — Fine  and  quite  free  from  wrinkles. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  black  or  blue  spots,  a  coarse  mane, 
in-bent  knees,  hollowness  of  shoulders,  wrinkled  skin. 


SMALL  WHITE  SWINE. 

STANDARD    OF    EXCELLENCE    ADOPTED    BY    THE    NATIONAL   PIG 
BREEDERS   ASSOCIATION   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN. 

Color. — Pure  white. 

Head. — Very  short  and  dished,  snout  broad  and  turned  up, 
jowl  very  full,  broad  between  the  ears. 

Ears. — Small,  short  and  erect. 

Neck. — Short  and  thick. 

Chest. — Full  and  broad. 

Shoulders. — Full    and    wide. 

Legs — Short,  set  well  outside  the  body,  fine  bone. 

Pasterns. — Short  and  springy. 

Feet. — Small. 

Back. — Broad,  level  and  straight. 

Loin. — Wide. 

Tail. — High  set,  small  and  fine,  with  tassel  of  fine  hair. 

Girth. — As  deep  as  possible  consistent  with  length. 

Sides. — Deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung. 

Belly. — Deep  and  near  ground. 

Flank. — Thick  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters. — Wide   and   full. 

Hams. — Dee-p,  wide,  full,  and  well  rounded. 

Coat. — Fine  and  silky. 

Action. — Free  and  firm. 

Skin. — Fine,  quite  free  from  wrinkles.  The  general  appear- 
ance of  animals,  small,  thick  and  compact  when  compared 
with  other  breeds. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  black  or  blue  spots,  coarse  hair, 
in-bent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulder,  wrinkled  skin. 


184 


JUDGING  SWINE 

SMALL  YORKSHIRE  SWINE, 


SCALE  OF  POINTS — AMERICAN  SMALL  YORKSHIRE  SWINE  " 
RECORD,    VOLUME    II,    1890. 

Smaller  the  better 2 

Nose,  shorter  the  better 5 

Dish,  greater  the  better 3 

Width  between  ears,  greater,  the  better  3 
Ears,    small,    thin,    erect,    more   so    the 
better   (may  be  pricked  forward,  not 

lopped)     2 


Head  ,.15 


Trunk 


Hams 


Shoulders    . 
Legs    . 


Skin 


Hair 


/  Top   line,    straighter   the   better,    from 

I       shoulder  to  tail 5 

\  Belly  line,  the  more  level  the  better.  .  5 

j  Girth,  in  excess  of  length,  more  the  bet- 

3_    }      ter,  if  not  more  than  ten  per  cent.  .  .  5 

3  \  Depth,   greater  the  better 5 

1  Width,   greater  and  evener  the  better, 

/       from  shoulder  to  ham 5 

I  Loin,  broader  the  better 5 

'   Flank,  deeper  and  fuller  the  better.  .  .  5 

f  Length,  longer  the  better 10 

,25  ^  Breadth,  broader  the  better 10 

[  Thickness,  greater  the  better 5 

f  Length,   longer  the  better 2 

.    5  <(  Breadth,   broader  the  better 3 

[Thickness    0 

r    i  Shorter  the  better 3 

3  i  Straighter    the    better 2 

/  Smooth,  flexible,  fine;  more  so  the  bet- 

I       ter    5 

Must   not   be    too   thin,    nor   ridgy 
•    5  an'l     coarse,     nor     show     discolored 

spots  from  old  sores,  not  pale  and 
ashy  but  healthy  in  color  and  free 
from  eruption. 


Evener,    finer   and    thicker   the   better.      5 


General   appear-     f   Symmetry    and    evidence     of     vigorous 
ance   .  .51        health    .     5 


Total     100 

DISCOUNTS    AND    DISQUALIFICATIONS. 

Pedigree,  lack  of  registration  or  ineligibility  to  be  regis- 
tered   disqualifies 100 

Sterility,   inability   to   produce  offspring  disqualifies 100 

Deformity,  any  structural  deformity  or  lack  disqualifies.  .  100 


OFFICIAL    STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   FOR    SWINE  185 

Disease,  any  evidence  of,  or  tendency  to  disease  disqualifies.  100 
Disease,  scars  of  sores,  discolored  spots,  eruptions,  eczema, 

etc 5    to    25 

Colored    hair,    disqualifies 100 

Colored   spots,   dark  spots  in  skin 5  to   25 

Size,  inordinate  size,  with  coarseness  of  bone  or  form.  10  to   50 

Size,    diminutive    size 5   to   25 

Disposition,  savage  or  fierce  nature 5  to  10 


SUFFOLK  SWINE. 

SCALE  OF  POINTS    ADOPTED  BY   THE  AMERICAN   SUFFOLK 

ASSOCIATION.  £ 

Color.— White    2 

Head. — Small,  broad  and  face  dished 3 

Ears. — Fine,  erect,  slightly  drooping  with  age 2 

Jowl. — Full   and   neat 1 

Neck. — Short,  full  and  slightly  arched 3 

Shoulders. — Broad  and  deep 7 

Girth  Around  Heart 6 

Back. — Straight,  broad,  level 12 

Sides. — Deep    and    full 6 

Ribs. — Well  sprung    7 

Loin. — Broad  and  strong 12 

Plank. — Well  let  down 2 

Ham. — Broad,    full,    deep 12 

Tail. — Medium,  fine  and  curled 2 

Legs. — Fine,  straight  and  tapering 3 

Feet. — Small    3 

Hair. — Fine  and  silky,  free  from  bristles 3 

Action. — Easy  and   graceful 4 

Symmetry- — Adaptation  of  the  several  parts  to  each  other  10 


Total (         ,....,  ..100 


186  JUDGING   SWINE 


TAMWORTH  SWINE. 

STANDARD    OF    EXCELLENCE    ADOPTED    BY    THE    NATIONAL   PIG 
BREEDERS    ASSOCIATION    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN. 

Color. — Golden-red  hair  on  a  flesh  colored  skin,  free  from 
black. 

Head. — Fairly  long,  snout  moderately  long,  and  quite 
straight,  face  slightly  dished,  wide  between  ears. 

Ears. — Rather  large,  with  fine  fringe,  carried  rigid,  but  in- 
clined slightly  forward. 

Neck. — Fairly  long  and  muscular,  especially  in  boar. 

Chest. — Wide  and   deep. 

Shoulders. — Fine  standing,  and  well  set. 

Legs. — Strong  and  shapely  with  plenty  of  bone  and  set  well 
outside  of  body. 

Pasterns. — Strong  and  sloping. 

Feet. — Strong  and  fair  size. 

Back. — Long   and   straight. 

Loin.— Strong  and  broad. 

Tail. — Set  on  high  and  well  taeseled. 

Girth. — Deep  and  full  around  heart. 

Sides. — Long  and  deep. 

Ribs. — Well  sprung,  and  extending  well  up  to  flank. 

Belly. — Deep,   with  straight  underline. 

Flank. — Full  and  well  let  down. 

Quarters. — Long,  wide,  and  straight  from  hip  to  tail. 

Hams. — Broad  and  full,  and  well  let  down  to  hock. 

Coat. — Abundant,  long,  straight,  and  fine. 


TAMWORTH  SWINE. 

The  following  is  the  Tamworth  Scale  of  Points  adopted  by 
the  English  breeders: 

Formation  and  setting  on  of  fore  legs 10 

Formation  and  setting  on  of  hind  legs 10 

Length  and  general  conformation 10 

Head,  ears,  jowl  and  snout 10 

Breadth    of   neck    5 

Breadth  and  depth  of  sholders 10 

Width  of  loin,  depth  of  sides,  springing  of  ribs 15 

Depth  and  breadth  of  hams 10 

Straightness    of    back 5 

Hair  and  quality  of  skin 5 

Color    5 

Fineness  of  bone 5 

Action. — Firm  and  free. 

Objections. — Black  hairs,  very  light  or  ginger  hair,  curly 
coat,  coarse  mane,  black  spots  on  skin,  slouch  or  drooping 
ears,  short  or  turned  up  snout,  heavy  shoulders,  wrinkled 
skin,  inbent  knees,  hollowness  at  back  of  shoulders. 


OFFICIAL   STANDARDS   OF   EXCELLENCE   1  OB    SWINE  187 


THIN  RIND  HOGS. 


STANDARD   OF  EXCELLENCE   ADOPTED   BY  THE  THIN   BIND 
RECORD    ASSOCIATION. 

Head. — Medium,  well  proportioned  to  length  of  body,  and     <§ 
grade  as  follows: 

Face. — Straight  and  rather  narrow  between  eyes 3 

Eyes. — Full  and  bright 2 

Ears. — Medium  length,  thin  and  slightly  inclining  forward      3 

Jowl. — Light  and  tapering  from  neck  to  point 5 

Xeck. — Short  and  well  set  to  shoulders 3 

Shoulders. — Wide,  full  and  deep,  smoothly  joined  to  back      6 
Back. — Medium  in  length,  broad  with  nearly  uniform  width 
from  shoulders  to  loins,  slightly  arched  from  neck  to 

top    of    tail 10 

Sides. — Deep  and  well  rounded,  nearly  straight  on  bottom 

line     , 8 

Ribs. — Nicely  sprung  in  line  with  shoulders  and  hams.  .      3 
Girth. — Very  full,  denoting  great  vigcr  and  strong  consti- 
tution         8 

Flank. — Running  low  nearly  in  line  with  belly 2 

Hams. — Full  and  rounding  up  to  rump  and  of  great  breadth   12 
Legs. — Small,  set  well  apart,  very  erect  on  feet,  denoting 

great  carrying  capacity 10 

Tail. — Medium  length,  neat  and  tapering 2 

Hair. — Fine  and  of  medium  thickness 3 

Color. — Black,  with  exception  of  white  belt  encircling  body 
including  fore  legs,  or  solid  black,  white  running  high 

upon  hind  legs  objectionable  but  allowable 5 

Form  and  General  Appearance. — Smooth  and  symmetrical, 
devoid  of  such  grossness  as  excess  of  bone,  jowl  and 
flabby  belly;  spirited,  attractive,  easy  movement,  indi- 
cating constitutional  vigor  and  good  breeding 15 


Total   .  100 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS. 


This  book  has  been  developed  to  its  present  form  under  in- 
fluences that  have  been  very  favorable  to  it  and  the  author 
feels  that  these  should  be  fittingly  acknowledged.  Prom  its 
inception,  some  ten  years  ago,  these  influences  have  been  so 
encouraging  that  it  becomes  necessary  to  give  tangible  evidence 
of  them,  and  consequently  the  work  had  to  be  published  with- 
out any  thought  of  filling  the  traditional  "long-felt  want" 
which  is  so  frequently  the  source  of  authorship.  Previous  to 
attending  the  Ontario  Agricultural  College  the  writer  had  a 
very  limited  knowledge  of  any  phase  of  live  stock  work  but  a 
deep  love  and  active  interest  in  animal  life,  centered  chiefly 
on  horses,  made  the  instruction  from  such  teachers  as  Prof. 
Wm.  Brown,  Dr.  F.  C.  Grenside  and  Prof.  J.  W.  Robertson,  a 
genuine  pleasure.  After  graduation,  three  years  of  editorial 
management  of  the  Canadian  Live  Stock  Journal  offered  un- 
usual opportunities  for  analyzing  the  ideals  of  the  best  Cana- 
dian breeders,  to  whom  unlimited  appreciation  is  hereby  ten- 
dered for  a  foundation  which  could  hardly  have  been  laid 
without  more  than  usual  co-operation  from  them.  With  the 
acceptance  of  the  Chair  of  Animal  Husbandry  in  the  University 
of  Wisconsin,  a  wider  field  was  entered  upon  for  deeper  study 
and  investigation.  Stock  judging  was  made  a  leading  feature 
of  the  course,  and  with  the  development  of  ideas  a  new  system 
of  instruction  was  evolved.  The  writer  is  vastly  indebted  to 
Mr.  R.  B.  Ogilvie,  formerly  proprietor  of  Blairgowrie  Stock 
Farm,  for  not  only  directly  assisting  the  development  of  this 
department  at  the  University,  but  also  for  the  results  from 
frequent  visits  and  conferences  at  Blairgowrie,  through  which 
a  much  stronger  grasp  of  the  essentials  of  horse  judging  was 
obtained.  For  many  valuable  observations  on  the  qualities  of 
draft  horses  the  writer  finds  himself  also  greatly  in  the  debt 


192  ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

of  Mr.  Alexander  Galbraith.  The  influence  of  Hon.  W.  A. 
Jones,  now  Commissioner  of  Indian  Affairs,  was  clearly  felt  on 
the  development  of  this  department  of  the  University,  for 
through  him  as  chairman  of  the  Farm  Committee  of  the  Board 
of  Regents,  the  equipment  for  this  work  was  materially  up- 
lifted with  corresponding  encouragement.  Mr.  George  Mc- 
Kerrow  liberally  assisted  the  writer  in  his  work  and  much 
advancement  is  due  to  him  and  others,  including  Messrs. 
George  Harding  and  Son,  the  late  Mr.  M.  W.  Dunham,  Ex- 
Governor  Hoard,  H.  C.  Taylor,  John  Gosling  and  M.  J.  Hoven, 
all  of  whom  in  more  than  one  way  gave  material  impetus  to 
the  movement. 

It  was  at  this  time  that  the  writer  come  under  the  inspiring 
influence  of  the  late  Mr.  William  Watson.  It  was  a  source  of 
intense  pleasure  to  see  this  experienced  fitter  and  judge  sub- 
ject any  of  his  loving  friends,  chiefly  cattle  and  sheep,  to  his 
considerate  inspection.  Equally  fair  minded,  another  friend, 
William  Lysaght,  had  this  rare  faculty  of  candid  criticism 
even  of  :his  own,  and  to  both  of  these  men  the  writer  owes 
more  than  he  is  able  to  acknowledge.  After  coming  to  Iowa, 
enlarged  opportunities  were  entered  upon  for  the  pursuit  of 
these  studies.  Prof.  C.  F.  Curitss  and  Hon.  James  Wilson, 
present  Secretary  of  Agriculture,  had  prepared  the  way  with 
an  equipment  in  live  stock  and  other  facilities  of  exceptional 
merit  for  the  teaching  of  this  subject.  Continued  association 
with  the  former  has  vastly  deepened  and  widened  the  writer's 
interest  and  knowledge  of  this  subject;  for  such  must  be  the 
outcome  of  contact  with  a  broad  and  fair  minded  judge  of 
wide  experience  in  American  live  stock  show  rings.  One  of  the 
most  effective  sources  of  encouragement  to  the  development 
of  this  line  of  teaching  has  been  the  support  given  the  move- 
ment by  the  commission  firm  of  Messrs.  Clay,  Robinson  & 
Company,  of  the  Union  Stock  yards,  Chicago.  By  liberally 
donating  prizes  for  the  study  of  this  subject  in  our  colleges, 
this  firm  brought  the  attention  of  the  practical  man  to  it,  as 
the  latter  realized  that  when  a  large  firm  stopped  in  its  work 
to  do  this  there  must  be  something  of  genuine  merit  in  the 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS  193 

movement.  With  such  interest  from  outside  sources  and  such 
direct  asscciaticns  is  it  any  wonder  that  the  subject  should 
gro_w  until  it  became  a  necessity  to  publish  a  book  about  it? 
Other  influences  have  been  drawn  on  in  studying  this  sub- 
ject further.  In  earlier  days  the  writer  happened  on  one  of 
the  first  numbers  of  the  Breeders  Gazette,  containing  an  illus- 
trated editorial  on  the  points  of  horses.  This  emphasized  the 
importance  of  the  subject  and  at  once  started  the  note  taking 
and  the  collection  of  photographs  which  seem  essential  features 
for  a  work  like  this.  Since  then  the  same  source  has  been 
frequently  drawn  upon.  The  writer  has  also  found  it  very 
desirable  to  keep  in  touch  with  the  London  Live  Stock  Journal, 
as  well  as  many  other  publications  along  this  line  included  in 
the  American  press.  Among  contemporary  works,  Capt.  Kayes' 
"Points  of  the  Horse,"  Goubaux  and  Barrier's  "Exterior  of 
the  Horse,"  Underbill's  "Driving  for  Pleasure"  and  many 
others  have  been  consulted.  To  continue  acknowledging  all 
the  sources  of  assistance  to  the  writer,  wcul?.  require  another 
volume  but  let  it  suffice  to  say — there  are  hundreds  of  Amer- 
ican, Canadian  and  British  breeders  to  whom  he  vividly  recog- 
nizes his  debt  but  feels  utterly  unable  to  adequately  acknowl- 
edge it. 


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